Dynamic monitoring of activation of G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) and receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) in living cells using real-time microelectronic cell sensing technology

ABSTRACT

The present application includes systems and methods for identifying a compound capable of interacting with a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) including providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance operably connected to an impedance analyzer, adding test cells expressing a GPCR or a RTK to wells of the device, measuring first impedances of the wells and optionally determining first cell indices from the first impedances, adding a compound to at least one well containing test cells to form at least one compound well and adding a vehicle control to at least another well containing test cells to form at least one control well, measuring second impedances of the compound well and the control well and optionally determining second cell indices from the second impedances, determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the compound well and the one control well, comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the compound well and the control well, and identifying the compound interacts with the GPCR or RTK if the comparison demonstrates a significant difference between the change in impedance or cell index of the compound well and the control well.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 11/055,639, entitled “Real time electronic cell sensing systemand applications for cytotoxicity profiling and compound assays” filedon Feb. 9, 2005 which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/987,732, entitled “Real time electronic cellsensing system and application for cell based assays” filed on Nov. 12,2004, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application60/519,567, filed on Nov. 12, 2003. Parent U.S. patent application Ser.No. 10/987,732 is itself a continuation-in-part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/705,447 filed on Nov. 10, 2003, entitled“Impedance Based Devices and Methods for Use in Assays” which claimspriority to U.S. Provisional Application 60/397,749, filed on Jul. 20,2002; U.S. Provisional Application 60/435,400, filed on Dec. 20, 2002;U.S. Provisional Application 60/469,572, filed on May 9, 2003; and PCTapplication PCT/US03/22557, filed on Jul. 18, 2003. All of theapplications referred to in this paragraph are incorporated by referencein their entireties herein.

Parent U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/987,732 is also acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,615,entitled “Impedance Based Apparatuses and Methods for Analyzing Cellsand Particles”, filed on Nov. 10, 2003, which claims priority to U.S.Provisional Application 60/397,749 filed on Jul. 20, 2002; U.S.Provisional Application 60/435,400, filed on Dec. 20, 2002; U.S.Provisional Application 60/469,572, filed on May 9, 2003; and PCTapplication PCT/US03/22537, filed on Jul. 18, 2003. All of theapplications referred to in this paragraph are incorporated by referencein their entireties herein.

Parent U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/055,639 also claims priorityto U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/542,927 filed on Feb. 9,2004; U.S. Provisional Application 60/548,713, filed on Feb. 27, 2004,and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/614,601, filed on Sep. 29, 2004.All of the applications referred to in this paragraph are incorporatedby reference in their entireties herein.

This application is also a continuation-in-part of PCT PatentApplication No. PCT/US05/04481, filed on Feb. 9, 2005, and thisapplication is a continuation-in-part of PCT Patent Application No.PCT/US04/37696, filed on Nov. 12, 2004. All of the applications referredto in this paragraph are incorporated by reference in their entiretiesherein.

This application also claims benefit of priority to, U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application No. 60/598,608, filed on Aug. 4, 2004, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/630,071, filed on Nov. 22, 2004,U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/689,422, filed on Jun. 10,2005, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/598,609, filed on Aug.4, 2004, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/613,872, filed onSep. 27, 2004, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/647,189, filedon Jan. 26, 2005, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/647,075filed on Jan. 26, 2005, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/660,829 filed on Mar. 10, 2005, and U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 60/660,898 file on Mar. 10, 2005. All of theapplications referred to in this paragraph are incorporated by referencein their entireties herein.

This application also incorporates by reference in their entireties U.S.patent application Ser. No. ______, filed on Aug. 4, 2005, entitled,“Method For Assaying for Natural Killer, Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte andNeutrophil-Mediated Killing of Target Cells Using Real-TimeMicroelectronic Cell Sensing Technology”, having a Docket numberACE-112.P.1-US; and PCT Patent Application Number (to be determined),filed on Aug. 4, 2005 entitled, “Method For Assaying for Natural Killer,Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte and Neutrophil-Mediated Killing of Target CellsUsing Real-Time Microelectronic Cell Sensing Technology”, having adocket number ACE112P1PCT.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to the field of cell-based assays. In particular,the invention provides impedance-based devices, apparatuses and systemsfor analyzing cells and for conducting cell-based assays.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A. Electronic Analysis of Cells

Bioelectronics is a progressing interdisciplinary research field thatinvolves the integration of biomatereials with electronic devices.Bioelectronic methods have been used for analyzing cells and assayingbiological molecules and cells. In one type of application, cells arecultured on microelectrodes and cell-electrode impedance is measured anddetermined to monitor cellular changes.

In PCT Application No. PCT/US03/22557, entitled “IMPEDANCE BASED DEVICESAND METHODS FOR USE IN ASSAYS”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003, a device fordetecting cells and/or molecules on an electrode surface is disclosed.The device detects cells and/or molecules through measurement ofimpedance changes resulting from the attachment or binding of cellsand/or molecules to the electrode surfaces. A number of embodiments ofthe device is disclosed, together with the apparatuses, system for usingsuch devices to perform certain cell based assays.

In PCT Application No. PCT/US04/037696, entitled “REAL TIME ELECTRONICCELL SENSING SYSTEM AND APPLICATION FOR CELL-BASED ASSAYS”, filed onNov. 12, 2004, devices, systems and methods for assaying cells usingcell-substrate impedance monitoring are disclosed. In one aspect, thedisclosed cell-substrate monitoring devices comprise electrode arrays ona nonconducting substrate, in which each of the arrays has anapproximately uniform electrode resistance across the entire array. Inanother aspect, the disclosed cell-substrate monitoring systems comporseone or more cell-substrate devices comprising multiple wells each havingan electrode array, an impedance analyzer, a device station thatconnects arrays of individual wells to the impedance analyzer, andsoftware for controlling the device station- and impedance analyzer. Inanother aspect, the disclosed cellular assays use impedance monitoringto detect changes in cell behavior or state.

In PCT Application No. PCT/US05/004481, entitled “REAL TIME ELECTRONICCELL SENSING SYSTEM AND APPLICATIONS FOR CYTOTOXICITY PROFILING ANDCOMPOUND ASSAYS”, filed on Feb. 9, 2005, devices, systems and methodsfor assaying cells using cell-substarte impedance monitoring aredisclosed. In one aspect, the disclosed cellular assays use impedancemonitoring to detect changes in cell behavior or state. The methods canbe used to test the effects of compounds on cells, such as incytotoxicity assays. Methods of cytotoxicity profiling of compounds werealso provided.

B. GPCR Assay

Eukaryotic cells from unicellular and multicellular organisms havedevised evolutionarily conserved mechanisms for responding toenvironmental cues by utilizing specific cell surface receptors. Thesemembrane-bound receptors recognize and bind to their cognate ligand andturn on biochemical cascades inside the cell that culminate in aspecific cellular response. Members of the G-protein coupled receptor(GPCR) family are one of the main classes of cell surface receptors thatparticipate in a variety of cellular pathways that result in differentcellular responses such as proliferation, chemotaxis, and cytoskeletaldynamics. GPCRs have the ability to recognize a wide range ofextracellular molecules including amino acids, hormones, growth factors,light, peptide and non-peptide neurotransmitters and a number of odorantmolecules. Because GPCRs and their cognate ligands participate inimportant physiological and pathophysiological settings, including butnot limited to inflammation, hypertension, diabetes and autoimmunitythey are extremely attractive targets for the pharmaceutical industry.More than 50% of the current therapeutic agents on the market aretargeted at GPCRs and as more GPCRs and their ligands are beingdiscovered this number will likely rise even further in the comingyears. Therefore, GPCRs occupy a unique position as a pharmaceuticaltarget because it far exceeds any other pharmaceutically relevanttarget.

As the name implies, GPCRs are associated with a heterotrimeric guaninenucleotide binding-protein complex (G-proteins). Ligand binding to theGPCR induces a conformational change which promotes exchange of GTP forGDP on the G-protein α-subunit which allows for dissociation of theG-protein α-subunit from Gβγ-subunits. Subsequently, the activated Gαsubunit and Gβγ subunit positively and/or negatively impact the activityof effector enzymes and proteins. Furthermore, in recent years it hascome to light that there is a feedback mechanism in place whichnegatively regulates or modulates GPCR-mediated signaling by a varietyof mechanisms such as post-translational modification, protein-proteininteraction or receptor endocytosis. Thus, the activity of GPCR isdetermined by the fine balance of receptor de-sensitization andre-sensitization which is dictated by the ligand concentration andnumerous other inputs that the cell receives simultaneously.

The human genome project has identified a number of proteins which canbe categorized into GPCRs based on sequence. The number of GPCRs encodedby the human genome is estimated to be between 800-1000 and thus farapproximately 650 GPCR have been identified from the effort of the humangenome project, 200 of which are classified as known GPCR because theactivating ligands for these receptors are known (Nambi, P and Aiyar N,G-protein coupled receptors in drug discovery, in Assay and DrugDevelopment Technologies (2003) 1, 305-310). The remaining receptors forwhich the ligands are not known are considered “orphan receptors” andthey are the subject of intense scrutiny as potential medically relevanttargets. There are a number of in vitro and cell-based assays availablewhich are used to screen for potential agonist or antagonist of GPCRs.The in vitro assays are based on binding studies with labeled ligand andreceptor. (Nambi, P and Aiyar N, G-protein coupled receptors in drugdiscovery, in Assay and Drug Development Technologies (2003) 1, 305-310)The cell-based assays are based on engineering cell lines to expressexogenous GPCRs alone or together with a reporter plasmid. Calciumsensitive dyes have been used extensively to screen for GPCRs thatincrease intracellular calcium levels in response to agonists challenge.Alternatively, a fluorescent or luminescent-based reporter assayco-transfected with the appropriate GPCR and G-protein has also beenused to identify potential agonists or antagonists of the transfectedGPCR (Nambi, P and Aiyar N, 2003, G-protein coupled receptors in drugdiscovery, in Assay and Drug Development Technologies Vol: 1, pp305-310). While these assays are extremely useful in high throughputscreening to identify potential agonists and antagonists, they doinvolve pre-labeling the cells with fluorescent dyes in the case ofcalcium-based assays or lysing the cells to measure the activity ofreporter genes.

C. Receptor Protein Tyrosine Kinases

All of the cells in our body are constantly and simultaneously exposedto hundreds of different stimuli. The cells need to recognize thesestimuli, mobilize its biochemical machinery and respond in anappropriate and coordinated fashion. Polypeptide growth factors such asthe epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet derived growth factor(PDGF), nerve growth factor (NGF) and a whole host of other growthfactors constitute a large family of growth factors which is used by thecells in the body to communicate and regulate cell growth,proliferation, differentiation, migration and cell death. Thesepolypeptide growth factors interact with specific receptors present atthe cell surface called receptor protein tyrosine kinases. Thesereceptors are single pass transmembrane receptors, composed of anextracellular domain, a transmembrane domain and a cytoplasmic domaincontaining tyrosine kinase activity. Upon binding their cognate ligandthe receptor undergoes a conformational change which leads todimerization, cross phosphorylation and activation of the cytoplasmictyrosine kinase domain. The activated kinase domain binds to ATP andtransfers and covalently links the terminal phosphate of ATP to specifictyrosine residues of signaling proteins inside the cell. Tyrosinephosphorylation of target proteins allows specific protein-proteininteractions inside the cell leading to biochemical, structural,morphological and gene expression changes and finally culminating incellular response such as proliferation and migration.

Because polypeptide growth factors and their receptors control crucialcellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation and migrationit is absolutely imperative that these growth factors and the signalingpathways they trigger inside the cell is coordinated in a verycontrolled and precise manner. Failure to regulate these growth factorsor their signaling pathways can lead to cancer, degenerative diseasesand inflammation. A number of cancers, especially those of the breastand lung have been shown to be associated with dysregulation of growthfactors and their signaling pathways due to mutations thatconstitutively activate the receptors or due to overexpression of thereceptors. Because growth factors and their receptors play a centralrole in certain diseases and disease progression, they have becomehighly valued and pursued targets for the pharmaceutical and biotechindustries. Recent years has witnessed a surge of protein-based andcompound-based drugs which seek to inhibit or block receptor proteintyrosine kinase signaling involved in certain cancers.

Several different approaches, including antibody-based drugs as well assmall molecular-based drugs have been developed to block the action ofpolypetide growth factors and their receptors which maybe involved incancer. Herceptin, a monoclonal antibody targeted to the c-erB-2/Her-2receptor, a member of the EGF receptor family, is now an approvedtherapy for breast cancer (Roberto E. Favoni and Alessandra De Cupis,2000, The role of polypeptide growth factors in human carcinomas: newtargets for a novel pharmacological approach, in PharmacologicalReviews, Vol:52, pp 179-205). Also, Gefitinib, a small molecularinhibitor of the EGF receptor has been shown to be efficacious againstcertain kinds of lung cancer (El-Rayes B F and LoRusso P M, 2004,Targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor, in British Journal ofCancer, Vol: 91, pp: 418-424). Both in vitro kinase assays andcell-based assays based on proliferation, reporter-based assays, andmigration have been established and utilized to screen for potentialinhibitor of receptor tyrosine kinases involved in cancer progression.There are several advantages for using cell-based assays to screen forreceptor protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors, regardless of whether theyare protein-based or compound-based inhibitors. Cell-based assays allowfor a more physiological setting to test the selectivity and efficacy ofthe inhibitor of interest. Furthermore, since in some cases theinhibitors need to traverse the membrane in order to inhibit the kinaseactivity of the receptor, the cell-based assay allows for assessment ofboth the stability and solubility of the compound of interest.

The present invention further expands the inventions disclosed in PCTApplication No. PCT/US03/22557, entitled “IMPEDANCE BASED DEVICES ANDMETHODS FOR USE IN ASSAYS”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003, and disclosed inU.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447, entitled “IMPEDANCE BASEDDEVICES AND METHODS FOR USE IN ASSAYS,” Attorney Docket No.ACE-00101.P.1.1-US, filed on Nov. 10, 2003, and disclosed in PCTApplication No. PCT/US05/004481, entitled “REAL TIME ELECTRONIC CELLSENSING SYSTEM AND APPLICATIONS FOR CYTOTOXICITY PROFILING AND COMPOUNDASSAYS”, filed on Feb. 9, 2005, and disclosed in U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 11/055,639, entitled “REAL TIME ELECTRONIC CELL SENSING SYSTEMAND APPLICATIONS FOR CYTOTOXICITY PROFILING AND COMPOUND ASSAYS” filedon Feb. 9, 2005, and disclosed in PCT Application No. PCT/US04/037696,entitled “REAL TIME ELECTRONIC CELL SENSING SYSTEM AND APPLICATION FORCELL-BASED ASSAYS”, filed on Nov. 12, 2004, and disclosed in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/987,732, entitled “REAL TIME ELECTRONIC CELLSENSING SYSTEM AND APPLICATION FOR CELL-BASED ASSAYS” filed on Nov. 12,2004. The present invention provides a real time cell electronic sensingsystem for conducting cell-based assays based on measurement ofcell-substrate impedance and provides the method for dynamic monitoringof G-Protein Coupled Receptor activation and Receptor Tyrosine Kinaseactivation using real-time microelectronic cell sensing technology.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention is directed to a device formonitoring cell-substrate impedance, which device comprises: a) anonconducting substrate; b) two or more electrode arrays fabricated onthe substrate, where each of the two or more electrode arrays comprisestwo electrode structures; and c) at least two connection pads, each ofwhich is located on an edge of the substrate. Each electrode array ofthe device has an approximately uniform electrode resistancedistribution across the entire array. The substrate of the device has asurface suitable for cell attachment or growth; where cell attachment orgrowth on said substrate can result in a detectable change in impedancebetween or among the electrode structures within each electrode array.In preferred embodiments, each electrode array on the substrate of adevice of the present invention is associated with a fluid-impermeablecontainer.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a cell-substrateimpedance measurement system comprising: a) at least one multiple-welldevice monitoring cell-substrate impedance, in which at least two of themultiple wells each comprise an electrode array at the bottom of thewell; b) an impedance analyzer; c) a device station capable of engagingthe one or more multiple-well devices and capable of selecting andelectrically connecting electrode arrays within any of the multiplewells in to the impedance analyzer; and d) a software program to controlthe device station and perform data acquisition and data analysis onimpedance values measured by the impedance analyzer. In preferredembodiments of this aspect of the present invention, each electrodearray of the multiple-well device is individually addressed.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method formonitoring cell-substrate impedance using a device of the presentinvention. The method includes: providing a multiple array device of thepresent invention; connecting said multiple array device to an impedanceanalyzer; depositing cells on at least one of the two or more arrays ofthe device; and monitoring cell-substrate impedance on one or morearrays of the device.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forcalculating a Cell Change Index for quantifying and comparingcell-substrate impedance.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forcalculating resistance of electrical traces connecting an array of acell-substrate monitoring device with a connection pad. Suchcalculations of electrical trace resistance can be used for calculatingCell Index.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method formonitoring cell-substrate impedance using a cell-substrate impedancemeasurement system of the present invention. The method includes:providing a cell-substrate impedance measurement system of the presentinvention, adding cells to at least one well of the multiple-well devicethat comprises an electrode array, and monitoring cell-substrateimpedance from one or more of the wells that comprise cells. Impedancecan be monitored at regular or irregular time intervals. In preferredembodiments, cell-substrate impedance is monitored in at least two wellsof a multiple-well device.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming real-time cell-based assays investigating the effects of oneor more compound on cells, comprising: providing an above describedcell-substrate impedance measurement system; introducing cells into atleast one well of the system that comprises an electrode array; addingone or more compounds to one or more of the wells containing cells; andmonitoring cell-substrate impedance over the electrode array of the oneor more wells before and after adding the one or more compounds.Preferably, cell-substrate impedance is monitored at regular orirregular time intervals after adding one or more compounds to the oneor more of the wells containing cells. The time dependent impedancechange can provide information about time dependent cell status beforeaddition of the compound and about time dependent cell status under theinteraction of the compound. This information can be used to determinethe effect of a compound on the cells.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming real-time cytotoxicity assays of at least one compound,comprising: providing an above described cell-substrate impedancemeasurement system; introducing cells into one or more wells of thesystem that comprise an electrode array; adding one or more compounds tothe one or more wells containing cells; and monitoring cell-substrateimpedance of the one or more wells before and after adding the one ormore compounds, wherein the time dependent impedance change providesinformation about time dependent cytotoxicity of the compound orcompounds. Preferably, cell-substrate impedance is monitored at regularor irregular time intervals after adding one or more compounds to theone or more of the wells containing cells. The time dependent impedancechange can provide information about any potential cytotoxic effects ofthe compound.

In one embodiment of the above methods, multiple wells with same celltypes are used, wherein different concentrations of a compound are addedto different wells that comprise cells. The method can monitor andquantitate-time-dependent and concentration-dependent cellularresponses.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method foranalyzing and comparing time-dependent effects of a first compound and asecond compound on a cell type, comprising: a) performing a real-timeassay on a cell type with the first compound using the method describedabove; b) performing a real-time assay on said cell type with the secondcompound using the method described above; and c) comparing thetime-dependent responses of the first compound and the second compound.

In one embodiment of this method, time-dependent cellular responses aredetermined for a first compound at multiple dose concentrations. Inanother embodiment, time-dependent responses are determined for a secondcompound at multiple dose concentrations. In yet another embodiment,time-dependent cellular responses are determined for both a firstcompound and a second compound at multiple dose concentrations.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forcytotoxicity profiling for a compound on multiple cell types,comprising: a) performing real-time cytotoxicity assays on differentcell types with the compound using the method described above, and b)analyzing real-time cytotoxic responses of different cell types to thecompound to provide a cytotoxicity profile of the compound. In yetanother embodiment, the above methods are applied to performcytotoxicity profiling of multiple compounds on multiple cell types.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods foridentifying a compound capable of interacting with a G-Protein CoupledReceptor (GPCR) comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least two wells, wherein the testcells express a GPCR; (c) measuring first impedances of the at least twowells immediately preceding step d) and optionally determining firstcell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compound to atleast one well containing the test cells to form at least one compoundwell and adding a vehicle control to at least another well containingtest cells to form at least one control well; (e) measuring secondimpedances of the at least one compound well and of the at least onecontrol well after step d) and optionally determining second cellindices from the second impedances; (f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for the at least one compound well by comparingthe second impedance or the second cell index of the at least onecompound well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one compound well, and determining the change in the impedance orcell index of the at least one control well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one control well tothe first impedance or the first cell index of the at least one controlwell; (g) comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the atleast one compound well and the at least one control well; and (h)identifying the compound interacts with the GPCR if the comparisondemonstrates a significant difference between the change in impedance orcell index of the at least one compound well and the change in impedanceor cell index of the at least one control well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods for ofidentifying a compound capable of interacting with a G-Protein CoupledReceptor (GPCR) comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least one of the at least twowells to form at least one test well, and adding control cells to atleast another well to form at least one control well, wherein the testcells express a GPCR and the control cells do not express the GPCR orexpress the GPCR at a significantly lesser level that the test cells;(c) measuring first impedances of the at least one test well and of theat least one control well immediately preceding step d) and optionallydetermining first cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding acompound to the at least one test well and to the at least one controlwell; (e) measuring second impedances from the at least one test welland from the at least one control well after step d) and optionallydetermining second cell indices from the second impedances; (f)determining the change in the impedance or cell index of the at leastone test well by comparing the second impedance or the second cell indexof the at least one test well to the first impedance or the first cellindex of the the at least one test well, and determining the change inthe impedance or cell index of the at least one control well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone control well to the first impedance or the first cell index of thethe at least one control well; (g) comparing the changes in impedance orin cell index between the at least one test well and the at least onecontrol well; and (h) identifying the compound interacts with the GPCRif the comparison demonstrates a significant difference between thechange in impedance or cell index for the at least one test well and thechange in impedance or cell index for the at least one control well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forscreening for an antagonist for a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) witha known ligand comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to each of at least two of the at leasttwo wells, wherein the test cells express a GPCR; (c) adding a compoundsuspected of being a GPCR antagonist to at least one of the at least twowells to form at least one compound well, adding a vehicle control to atleast another well of the at least two wells to form at least onecontrol well; (d) measuring first impedances of the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well immediately precedingstep e), and optionally determining first cell indices from the firstimpedances; (e) adding a GPCR ligand to the at least one compound welland to the at least one control well; (f) measuring second impedances ofthe at least one compound well and the at least one control well afterstep e) and optionally determining second cell indices from the secondimpedances; (g) determining the change in the impedance or cell indexfor the at least one compound well by comparing the second impedance orthe second cell index of the at least one compound well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one compound well, anddetermining the change in the impedance or cell index of the at leastone control well by comparing the second impedance or the second cellindex of the at least one control well to the first impedance or thefirst cell index of the the at least one control well; (h) comparing thechange in impedance or cell index between the at least one compound welland the at least one control well; and (i) identifying the compound isan antagonist for the GPCR if the comparison demonstrates a significantdifference between the change in impedance or cell index of the at leastone compound well and the change in impedance or cell index of the atleast one control well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods foridentifying a compound that affects a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR)pathway comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least two of the at least twowells, wherein the test cells express a GPCR; (c) adding a compoundsuspected of being capable of affecting a GPCR pathway to at least oneof the at least two wells containing the test cells to form at least onecompound well, adding a vehicle control to at least another well of theat least two wells containing the test cells to form at least onecontrol well; (d) measuring first impedances of the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well immediately precedingstep e), and optionally determining first cell indices from the firstimpedances; (e) adding a GPCR activating compound to the at least onecompound well and to the at least one control well; (f) measuring secondimpedances of the at least one compound well and the at least onecontrol well after step e) and optionally determining second cellindices from the second impedances; (g) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for the at least one compound well by comparingthe second impedance or the second cell index of the at least onecompound well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one compound well, and determining the change in the impedance orcell index of the at least one control well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one control well tothe first impedance or the first cell index of the the at least onecontrol well; (h) comparing the change in impedance or cell indexbetween the at least one compound well and the at least one controlwell; and (i) identifying the compound effects the GPCR pathway if thecomparison demonstrates a significant difference between the change inimpedance or cell index of the at least one compound well and the changein impedance or cell index of the at least one control well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forvalidating a molecular target involved in the GPCR signaling pathwayleading from GPCR activation comprising: (a) providing a device capableof measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises twoor more wells, further wherein the device is operably connected to animpedance analyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least one well to form atest well and adding confirmation cells to at least another well to forma confirmation well, wherein the test cells express a GPCR and theconfirmation cells comprise: (i) a dominant negative of protein ofinterest, or (ii) an siRNA targeting a protein of interest, or (iii) agene knockout of protein of interest, or (iv) a chemical or proteininhibitor of the protein of interest; (c) measuring first impedances ofthe at least one test well and the at least one confirmation wellimmediately preceding step d), and optionally determining first cellindices from the first impedances; (d) adding a GPCR activating compoundto the at least one test well and to the at least one confirmation well;(e) measuring second impedances of the at least one test well and the atleast one confirmation well after step d) and optionally determiningsecond cell indices from the second impedances; (f) determining thechange in the impedance or cell index for the at least one test well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone test well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex of the at least one confirmation well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one confirmation wellto the first impedance or the first cell index of the at least oneconfirmation well; (g) comparing the change in impedance or cell indexbetween the at least one test well and the at least one confirmationwell; and (h) validating the molecular target if the comparisondemonstrates a significant difference between the change in impedance orcell index of the at least one test well and the change in impedance orcell index of the at least one confirmation well.

In a preferred embodiment of the above method for validating a moleculartarget involved in the GPCR signaling pathway leading from GPCRactivation, the activating compound is a GPCR ligand or a GPCR agonist.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods formonitoring dose-dependent functional activation of a G-Protein CoupledReceptor (GPCR) comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to the at least two wells, wherein thetest cells express a GPCR; (c) measuring first impedances from the atleast two wells immediately preceding step d) and optionally determiningfirst cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compoundcapable of activating the GPCR to at least two wells in at least at twodifferent concentrations forming compound wells 1 through x, wherein xequals the number of the at least two different concentrations; (e)measuring a series of impedances for each of the compound wells 1through x after step d) and optionally determining a series of cellindices from the series of impedances, wherein the series comprise atleast three impedance measurements; (f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for each of the compound wells 1 through x bycomparing the series of impedances or the series of cell indices foreach of the compound wells 1 through x to the first impedance or thefirst cell index of each well corresponding to the compound wells 1through x; and (g) comparing the changes in impedances or in cellindices between the compound wells 1 through x at a given time point.

In a preferred embodiment of the above method for monitoringdose-dependent functional activation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor(GPCR), the method further comprises establishing a dose curve, whereinthe dose curve is determined by plotting a maximum change in impedanceor a maximum change in cell index for each concentration of the compoundversus the corresponding concentration. In another embodiment, the dosecurve is determined by measuring the area under the cell-index curve orimpedance curve for each of the concentrations and plotting the areaunder the cell-index curve or impedance curve versus the correspondingconcentration. Preferably, the EC50 of the compound is determined fromthe dose curve, wherein the EC50 is the molar concentration of thecompound capable of inducing 50% of maximum responses in impedance orcell index or 50% of maximum change in area under the cell-index curveor impedance curve.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods todetermine desensitization of a GPCR comprising: (a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance of a test cell expressinga GPCR, wherein the device comprises at least one well, further whereinthe device is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b) addingtest cells to the at least one well, wherein the test cells expresses aGPCR; (c) measuring a first impedance of the at least one wellimmediately preceding step d) and optionally determining a first cellindex; (d) introducing an agonist to the at least one well; (e)measuring a second impedance of the at least one well and optionallydetermining a second cell index; (f) comparing the second impedance orthe second cell index to the first impedance or the first cell index;(g) allowing the cell-substrate impedance to return about to the firstimpedance; (h) washing the test cells with an appropriate wash solution;(i) introducing an agonist to the at least one well after the washingthe test cells; (O) measuring a third impedance of the at least one welland optionally determining a third cell index; (k) comparing the thirdimpedance or the third cell index to to the first impedance or the firstcell index; (1) comparing the third impedance or the third cell index tothe second impedance or the second cell index; and (m) determining theGPCR is fully desensitized if the third impedance or the third cellindex does not significantly vary from the first impedance or the firstcell index, or determining the GPCR is not desensitized if the thirdimpedance or third cell index does not significantly vary from thesecond impedance or the second cell index, or determining the GPCR ispartially desensitized if the third impedance or third cell index doesvary from the first impedance or the first cell index.

Preferably, in one embodiment of the above method for determinedesensitization of a GPCR, if the GPCR is not fully desensitized, thesteps h) through m) are repeated.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods foridentifying a factor capable of interacting with a receptor tyrosinekinase (RTK) comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least two wells, wherein the testcells express a RTK; (c) measuring first impedances of the at least twowells immediately preceding step d) and optionally determining firstcell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compound suspectedof being a factor capable of interacting with a RTK to at least one wellcontaining the test cells to form at least one compound well and addinga vehicle control to at least another well containing test cells to format least one control well; (e) measuring second impedances of the atleast one compound well and of the at least one control well after stepd) and optionally determining second cell indices from the secondimpedance; (f) determining the change in the impedance or cell index forthe at least one compound well by comparing the second impedance or thesecond cell index of the at least one compound well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one compound well, anddetermining the change in the impedance or cell index for the at leastone control well by comparing the second impedance or the second cellindex of the at least one control well to the first impedance or thefirst cell index of the the at least one control well; (g) comparing thechanges in impedances or in cell indices between the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well; and (h) identifying thecompound is a factor that interacts with the RTK and affects cellmorphology if the comparison demonstrates a significant differencebetween the change in impedance or cell index for the at least onecompound well and the change in impedance or cell index for the at leastone control well.

In a preferred embodiment of the above method for identifying a factorcapable of interacting with a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), the testcells are in a serum free medium.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods foridentifying a factor capable of interacting with a receptor tyrosinekinase (RTK) comprising (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, farther wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least one well to form at leastone test well, wherein the test cells express a RTK, and adding controlcells to at least another well to form at least one control well,wherein the control cells do not express the RTK or express the RTK at asignificantly lesser level that the test cells; (c) measuring firstimpedances from the at least one test well and from the at least onecontrol well immediately preceding step d) and optionally determiningfirst cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compound tothe at least one test well and to the at least one control well; (e)measuring second impedances from the at least one test well and from theat least one control well after step d) and optionally determiningsecond cell indices from the second impedances; (f) determining thechange in the impedance or cell index for the at least one test well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone test well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex for the at least one control well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one control well tothe first impedance or the first cell index of the the at least onecontrol well; (g) comparing the changes in impedance or in cell indexbetween the at least one test well and the at least one control well;and (h) identifying the compound interacts with the RTK if thecomparison demonstrates a significant difference between the change inimpedance or cell index for the at least one test well and the change inimpedance or cell index for the at least one control well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forscreening for an inhibitor for a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) inresponse to activation of RTK with a stimulating factor comprising: (a)providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance,wherein the device comprises at least two wells, further wherein thedevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding testcells to each of at least two of the at least two wells, wherein thetest cells expresses a RTK; (c) adding a compound suspected of being aRTK inhibitor to at least one of the at least two wells containing testcells to form at least one compound well, adding a vehicle control to atleast another well of the at least two wells containing test cells toform at least one control well; (d) measuring first impedances of the atleast one compound well and the at least one control well immediatelypreceding step e), and optionally determining first cell indices fromthe first impedances; (e) adding a RTK stimulating factor to thecompound well and the control well; (f) measuring second impedances ofthe at least one compound well and the at least one control well afterstep e) and optionally determining third cell indices from the secondimpedances; (g) determining the change in the impedance or cell indexfor the at least one compound well by comparing the second impedance orthe second cell index of the at least one compound well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one compound well, anddetermining the change in the impedance or cell index of the at leastone control well by comparing the second impedance or the second cellindex of the at least one control well to the first impedance or thefirst cell index of the the at least one control well; (h) comparing thechange in impedance or cell index between the at least one compound welland the at least one control well; and (i) identifying the compound isan inhibitor for the RTK if the comparison demonstrates a significantdifference between the change in impedance or cell index for the atleast one compound well and the change in impedance or cell index forthe at least one control well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods foridentifying a compound that affects a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK)pathway comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least two of the at least twowells, wherein the test cells expresses a RTK; (c) adding a compoundsuspected of being capable of effecting a RTK pathway to at least one ofthe at least two wells to form at least one compound well, adding avehicle control to at least another well of the at least two wells toform at least one control well; (d) measuring first impedances of the atleast one compound well and the at least one control well immediatelypreceding step e), and optionally determining first cell indices fromthe first impedances; (e) adding a RTK stimulating factor to the atleast one compound well and to the at least one control well; (f)measuring second impedances of the at least one compound well and the atleast one control well after the adding the RTK stimulating factor andoptionally determining second cell indices from the second impedances;(g) determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the atleast one compound well by comparing the second impedance or the secondcell index of the at least one compound well to the first impedance orthe first cell index of the at least one compound well, and determiningthe change in the impedance or cell index of the at least one controlwell by comparing the second impedance or the second cell index of theat least one control well to the first impedance or the first cell indexof the the at least one control well; (h) comparing the change inimpedance or cell index between the at least one compound well and theat least one control well; (i) identifying the compound effects the RTKpathway if the comparison demonstrates a significant difference betweenthe change in impedance or cell index for the at least one compound welland the change in impedance or cell index for the at least one controlwell.

In one embodiment of the above methods for identifying a compound thataffects receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathway, the stimulating factoris a growth factor capable of activating RTK. In a preferredembodiments, the growth factor is selected from the group consisting ofepidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), anerve growth factor (NGF), and an antibody capable of activating RTK.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods forvalidating a molecular target involved in the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase(RTK) signaling pathway leading from RTK activation comprising: (a)providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance,wherein the device comprises at least two wells, further wherein thedevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding testcells to at least one well to form a test well and adding control cellsto at least another well to form a control well, wherein the controlcells express a RTK and the test cells comprise: (1) a dominant negativeversion of protein of interest, or (2) an siRNA targeting a protein ofinterest; or (3) a gene knockout of a protein of interest; or (4) achemical or protein inhibitor specific for target of interest; (c)measuring first impedances of the at least one test well and the atleast one control well immediately preceding step d), and optionallydetermining first cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding acompound to the at least one test well and to the at least one controlwell; (e) measuring second impedances of the at least one test well andthe at least one control well after step d) and optionally determiningsecond cell indices from the second impedances; (f) determining thechange in the impedance or cell index for the at least one test well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone test well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex of the at least one control well by comparing the second impedanceor the second cell index of the at least one control well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the the at least one control well;(g) comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the at leastone test well and the at least one control well; and (h) validating themolecular target if the comparison demonstrates a significant differencebetween the change in impedance or cell index of the at least one testwell and the change in impedance or cell index of the at least onecontrol well.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods formonitoring dose-dependent functional activation of a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK) comprising: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to the at least two wells, wherein thetest cells express a RTK; (c) measuring first impedances from the atleast two wells immediately preceding step d) and optionally determiningfirst cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compoundcapable of activating the RTK to at least two wells in at least at twodifferent concentrations forming compound wells 1 through x, wherein xequals the number of the at least two different concentrations; (e)measuring a series of impedances for each of the compound wells 1through x after step d) and optionally determining a series of cellindices from the series of impedances, wherein the series comprise atleast three impedance measurements; (f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for each of the compound wells 1 through x bycomparing the series of impedances or the series of cell indices foreach of the compound wells 1 through x to the first impedance or thefirst cell index of each well corresponding to compound wells 1 throughx; and (g) comparing the changes in impedances or in cell indicesbetween the compound wells 1 through x at a given time point.

In one embodiment of the above method for monitoring dose-dependentfunctional activation of a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK), the methodfurther comprises establishing a dose curve, wherein the dose curve isdetermined by plotting a maximum change in impedance or a maximum changein cell index for each concentration of the the compound versus thecorresponding concentration, or the dose curve is determined bymeasuring the area under the cell-index curve or impedance curve foreach of the concentrations and plotting the area under the cell-indexcurve or impedance curve versus the corresponding concentration. In apreferred embodiment of the above method, the method further comprisedetermining an EC50 of the compound, wherein the EC50 is the molarconcentration of the compound capable of inducing 50% of a maximumresponse in impedance or cell index or 50% of a maximum change in areaunder the cell-index curve or impedance curve.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods foridentifying a compound capable of affecting Receptor Tyrosine Kinase(RTK) activity in cancer cell proliferation comprising: (a) providing adevice capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein the devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein the device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding cancer cells expressing areceptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) to at least two of the at least twowells; (c) measuring first impedances of the at least two wells beforestep d) and optionally determining first cell indices; (d) introducing acompound suspected of being an RTK inhibitor to the at least one well toform at least one compound well and adding a vehicle control to at leastanother well to form a control well; (e) measuring a series of secondimpedances of the compound well and the control well after step d) andoptionally determining second cell indices; (f) determining the changein the impedance or cell index for the at least one compound well bycomparing the series of second impedances or the second cell indices ofthe at least one compound well to the first impedance or the first cellindex of the at least one compound well, and determining the change inthe impedance or cell index of the at least one control well bycomparing the series of second impedances or the second cell indices ofthe at least one control well to the first impedance or the first cellindex of the the at least one control well; (g) comparing the change inimpedance or cell index between the at least one compound well and theat least one control well; and (h) identifying the compound is capableof affecting cancer cell proliferation if the comparison demonstratesthe change in impedance or cell index of the at least one control wellis greater than the change in impedance or cell index at least onecompound well.

In one embodiment of the above method for identifying a compound capableof affecting Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) activity in cancer cellproliferation, the second impedances are measured during a periodoccurring after an initial spike in impedance. In another embodiment ofthe above method, the method further comprise adding a RTK stimulatingfactor after step d) and before step e), wherein the cancer cells are inserum-free medium in the at least compound well and in the at least onecontrol well.

In one embodiment of the above methods for dynamic monitoring ofactivation of G-Protein coupled receptor (GPCR) and receptor tyrosinekinase (RTK) in living cells, the device capable of measuring ormonitoring cell-substrate impedance may comprise, a) a nonconductingsubstrate; b) two or more electrode arrays fabricated on the substrate,wherein each of the two or more electrode arrays comprises two electrodestructures; c) the two or more wells on the substrate, wherein each ofthe two or more arrays is associated with one of the two or more wells;and d) at least two connection pads, each of which is located on an edgeof the substrate; wherein for each of the two or more electrode arrays,each of the two electrode structures comprises multiple electrodeelements and the first of the two electrode structures of each of the atleast two electrode arrays is connected to one of the at least twoconnection pads, and the second of the two electrode structures of eachof the at least two electrode arrays is connected to another of the atleast two connection pads; further wherein at least two of the two ormore electrode arrays share one common connection pad; further whereineach electrode array has an approximately uniform electrode resistancedistribution across the entire array; and further wherein the substratehas a surface suitable for cell attachment or growth; wherein the cellattachment or growth on the substrate can result in a detectable changein impedance between or among the electrode structures within eachelectrode array.

In one embodiment of the above methods for monitoring activation of aG-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a recptor tyrosine kinase, thedevice capable of measuring cell-suibstrate impedance may comprise (a) anonconductive substrate; and (b) a conductive electrode array fabricatedon said nonconductive substrate; wherein a cell is capable of attachingto said electrode array. In a preferred embodiment of the methods, thedevice is in the format of a multi-well plate; wherein each of said atleast two wells comprises said conductive electrode array. Preferably,the multi-well plate is selected from the group consisting of a 16 wellplate, a 24 well plate, a 96 well plate, a 384 well plate, and a 1536well plate.

In a preferred embodiment of the above methods for monitoring theactivation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK), the cell substrate impedance measures a cell's morphologyor a characteristic of the cytoskeleton of a cell.

In preferred embodiments of the above methods for monitoring theactivation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR), the GPCR is selectedfrom the group consisting of a recombinant GP CR, an endogenous GP CR,an orphan GPCR, a constitutively active GPCR, and chimeric GPCR, orother chimeric receptor containing GPCR property.

In a preferred embodiment of the above methods for monitoring theactivation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK), the cell index is a normalized cell index whereinnormalization is at a time point a short time before adding a compound,or a vehicle control, or an agonist, or a lignad, or a GPCR activatingcompound, or a RTK stimulator factor, wherein the short time is selectedfrom the group consisting of less than 1 minute, less than 2 minutes,less than 5 minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 30 minutes, lessthan 1 hour, less than 2 hours, less than 5 hours, less than 10 hoursand less than 24 hours.

In some preferred embodiments of the above methods for monitoring theactivation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK), each of the first impedances are a series of impedancemeasurements prior to adding a compound, a vehicle control, or anagonist, or a lignad, or a GPCR activating compound or a RTK stimulatorfactor, and each of the first cell indices are a series of cell indices,wherein each of the first cell indices corresponds to a distinctimpedance measurement within the series of impedance measurements. Insome embodiments of the above methods, the measurement of the firstimpedances occurs at a time selected from the group consisting of lessthan 1 minute, less than 5 minutes, less than 30 minutes, less than 1hour, less 2 hours, less than 5 hours, less than 10 hours, and less than24 hours prior to said adding a compound, or a vehicle control, or anagonist, or a lignad, or a GPCR activating compound or a RTK stimulatorfactor.

In some preferred embodiments of the above methods for monitoring theactivation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK), each of the second impedances are a series of impedancemeasurements after the adding a compound, a vehicle control, or anagonist, or a lignad, or a GPCR activating compound or a RTK stimulatorfactor, and and each of the second cell indices are a series of cellindices, wherein each of the second cell indices correspond to adistinct impedance measurement within the series of impedancemeasurements. In some embodiments of the above methods, the measurementof the second impedances occurs at a time point selected from the groupconsisting of more than 1 minute, more than 5 minute, more than 30minute, more than 1 hour, more than 2 hours, more than 5 hours, morethan 10 hours, and more than 24 hours after adding a compound, or avehicle control, or an agonist, or a lignad, or a GPCR activatingcompound or a RTK stimulator factor.

In a preferred embodiment, the compound is selected from a library ofcompounds. A compound may be any molecules or biomolecules, includingbut ont limited to a small molecule, a large molecule, a molecularcomplex, an organic molecule, an inorganic molecule, a lipid, a steroid,a carbohydrate, a fatty acid, an amino acid, a peptide, a protein, anantibody, a nucleic acid, or any combination of these. Preferablly, acompound is capable of, or is suspected of, interacting with cells (forexample, binding to cell surface receptor, or inhibiting certainintracellular signal transduction pathway, or activating cells). Acompound may be a ligand, an agnosit, an inverse agnosit, an antagonist,an inihibitor, a RTK activating factor. Preferably, the compound isadded to multiple wells at multiple, different concentrations.

In some embodiments of the above methods for monitoring the activationof a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase(RTK), the changes in impedances or cell indices are absolute changes inimpedances or cell indices. In some other embodiments, the changes inimpedances or cell indices are relative changes in impedances or cellindices.

In a preferred embodiment of of the above methods for monitoring theactivation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) or a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK), the compound is added to at least two wells in at leasttwo different concentrations. In some embodiments of the above methods,a dose curve is determined by plotting a maximum change in impedance ora maximum change in cell index for each concentration of the compoundversus the corresponding concentration. In other embodiments, a dosecurve is established by determining the area under the cell-index curveor impedance curve for the different concentrations of the compound andplotting the area under the cell-index curve or impedance curve for eachof the compound concentrations versus the corresponding concentration.

If a compound is identified as a ligand or an agnosit or an activatingcompound for a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR), or a stimulatingfactor for a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK), preferably, EC50 of thecompound is determined from a dose response curve. If a compound isidentified as an antagonist for a GPCR, or as an inhibitor for aReceptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) in response to activation of RTK with astimulating factor, preferably, IC50 of the compound is determined froma dose response curve.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows schematic drawings of one design of a cell-substrateimpedance measurement device of the present invention. A) depicts thesubstrate having 16 electrode arrays (or 16 electrode structure units)that are arranged in a 2-row by 8-column configuration on a substrate.B) depicts a single electrode array of a device. C) shows a schematicdrawing of an electrode array, illustrating the requirement ofapproximately uniform distribution of electrode resistance across thearray.

FIG. 2 shows real-time monitoring of proliferation of H460 cells seededat different initial cell seeding numbers on a cell substrate impedancemonitoring system of the presnet invention. The cell proliferation wascontinuously recorded every 15 minutes for over 125 hours. The cellgrowth curves in the log scale show exponential cell growth or cells inthe stationary phase.

FIG. 3 shows real time monitoring of cell attachment and spreading ofNIH3T3 cells using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of thepresnet invention. The cells were seeded onto devices coated with eitherpoly-L-lysine or fibronectin. The cell attachment and cell spreadingprocesses on the different coating surfaces were monitored every 3minutes for over 3 hours in real time.

FIG. 4 shows real-time monitoring of morphological changes in Cos-7cells uisng a cell-substrate impedance monitoring system of the presnetinvention. The cells were serum starved for 8 hours and stimulated withor without 50 ng/mL EGF. Changes in cell morphology were monitored at 3min intervals for 2 hours and then 1 hour interval for 14 hours. Theinitial jump in the signal in EGF-treated cells is due to membraneruffling and actin dynamics in response to EGF. The arrow indicates thepoint of EGF stimulation.

FIG. 5 shows time-dependent cell index for H460 cells treated byanticancer drug paclitaxel. Different wells of cultured H460 cells weretreated at their exponential growth phase with different concentrationsof Paclitaxel. The dynamic response of the cells to different doses ofpaclitaxel was monitored in real time every 15 minutes for 50 hoursafter treatment using a cell-substrate impedance monitoring system ofthe presnet invention. For paclitaxel concentration between 67 nM and500 nM, H460 cells exhibited a gradual decrease in cell index initiallyafter the compound addition. However, the cell index reached a minimumat a time dependent on the compound concentration between about 15 hoursand 20 hours after compound addition. After that point, the cell indexexhibited a gradual increase in cell index. The cell index for compoundconcentration of 33 nM exhibited a near-constant value for time up toabout 15 hours after compound addition. After 15 hours following thecompound addition, the cell index exhibited a gradual increase in cellindex.

FIG. 6 shows time-dependent cell index for H460 cells treated byanticancer drug AC101103. Different wells of cultured H460 cells weretreated at their exponential growth phase with different concentrationsof AC101103. The dynamic response of the cells to different doses ofAC101103 was monitored in real time every 30 minutes for about 20 hourson a cell substrate impedance monitoring system of the presnetinvention. The time-dependent cell index in FIG. 6 is significantlydifferent from those shown in FIG. 5. For compound concentrations at3.125 ug/ml, 6.25 ug/ml and 12.5 ug/ml, the cell index exhibited anear-constant value for about 5 hrs, about 15 hrs and >20 hrsrespectively. For compound concentrations at 3.125 ug/ml and 6.25 ug/ml,the cell index started to increase after about 5 hrs and about 15 hrsfollowing compound addition. For the compound concentration of 25 ug/ml,there was a gradual, yet slow decrease in the cell index after compoundaddition. For the compound concentration of 50 ug/ml, there was an about10 hr time period over which the cell index remained near-constant, andafter that, the cell index decreased steadily.

FIG. 7 shows dynamic drug response curves of A549 cells treated withdoxorubicin. 10,000 A549 cells were seeded in each well of a 16× device.The cell attachment and cell growth were monitored on the cell-substrateimpedance monitoring system of the present invention in real time beforetreatment. When the cells were in exponential growth phase, doxorubicinat different concentration was added to the cells. Same volume of asolvent used for dissolve the drug was served as vehicle control. Thetime, and drug dose dependent cell response to doxorubicin was recordedin real time.

FIG. 8 shows titration of NIH3T3 cells on the devices of the presentinvention. The indicated cell number of cells were seeded intomicrotiter devices fabricated with electronic sensor arrays shown inFIG. 1B. The electronic sensor arrays were-precoated with fibronectin.Two hours after seeding, the cell index number was determined using acell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of the present invention.

FIGS. 9A and B shows the responses of various cell types (listed inTable 1) to doxorubicin treatment as monitored using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. The indicated celllines were seeded onto microtiter devices fabricated with electronicsensor arrays shown in FIG. 1B. The cellular responses were continuouslymonitored at 15 or 30 or 60 minutes time interval before and aftertreatment with doxorubicin.

FIGS. 10A and B shows the responses of various cell types (listed inTable 1) to olomoucine treatment as monitored using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. The indicated celllines were seeded onto microtiter devices fabricated with electronicsensor arrays shown in FIG. 1B. The cellular responses were continuouslymonitored at 15 or 30 or 60 minutes time interval before and aftertreatment with olomoucine.

FIGS. 11A and 11B show the responses of various cell types (listed inTable 1) to paclitaxel treatment as monitored using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. The indicated celllines were seeded onto microtiter devices fabricated with electronicsensor arrays shown in FIG. 1B. The cellular responses were continuouslymonitored at 15 or 30 or 60 minutes time interval before and aftertreatment with paclitaxel.

FIG. 12A shows the response of MV522 cells to doxorubicin treatment asmonitored using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of thepresnet invention. MV522 cells were seeded onto microtiter devicesfabricated with electronic sensor arrays shown in FIG. 1B and weretreated with either DMSO or doxorubicin at the indicated time andconcentration.

FIG. 12B shows the characterization of the cell biological effect ofdoxorubicin treatment on MV522 cells. The cells were either processedfor cell cycle analysis using FACS or treated with CFDA and Cy3-AnnexinV to assess cell viability. In addition, the cells were fixed andstained with phalloidin to examine cell morphology. For viability andmorphology, the cells were visualized and photographed using afluorescence microscope equipped with CCD camera.

FIG. 13A shows the response of A549 cells to olomoucine treatment asmonitored using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of thepresnet invention. A549 cells were seeded onto microtiter devicesfabricated with electronic sensor arrays shown in FIG. 1B and weretreated with either DMSO or olomoucine at the indicated time andconcentration.

FIG. 13B shows the characterization of the cell biological effect ofolomoucine treatment on MV522 cells. The cells were either processed forcell cycle analysis using FACS or treated with CFDA and Cy3-Annexin V toassess cell viability. In addition, the cells were fixed and stainedwith phalloidin to examine cell morphology. For viability andmorphology, the cells were visualized and photographed using afluorescence microscope equipped with CCD camera.

FIG. 14A shows the response of A549 cells to paclitaxel treatment asmonitored using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of thepresnet invention. A549 cells were seeded onto microtiter devicesfabricated with electronic sensor arrays shown in FIG. 1B and weretreated with either DMSO or paclitaxel at the indicated time andconcentration.

FIG. 14B shows the characterization of the cell biological effect ofpaclitaxel n treatment on A549 cells. The cells were either processedfor cell cycle analysis using FACS or treated with CFDA and Cy3-AnnexinV to assess cell viability. In addition, the cells were fixed andstained with phalloidin to examine cell morphology. For viability andmorphology, the cells were visualized and photographed using afluorescence microscope equipped with CCD camera.

FIG. 15. The time dependent IC values for each compound (15A:Doxorubicin; 15B: Paclitaxel; 15C: Olomoucine; 15D: Tamoxifan) for theindicated cell lines as estimated at 5 hr intervals from the cell indexcurves obtained using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system ofthe presnet invention.

FIG. 16A shows the cell index curves of HT29 cells before and aftertreatment with various compounds. Also shown is an theoreticalexponential increase of cell index with time (labeled as “Log-growth,model”) and cells treated with DMSO vehicle control (labeled as“Control, HT29”).

FIG. 16B shows the derived cell change index (CCI) from the cell indexcurves shown in FIG. 16A. Also shown is the “black-white shading codes”used for different responses based on the convention shown in FIG. 16C.

FIG. 16C shows the color-coding scheme used for representing the CCIcurves. If the DT is the doubling time for the cells undergoingexponential growth in the cell culture media used, then CCI havingdifferent values relative to 0.7/DT indicates the different cell changestatus. If CCI>>0.7/DT, cell index increases faster than that expectedfor an exponential growth (or log growth) of the cells (such region nthe CCI curve is represented as

Rectangle). If CCI is about 0.7/DT, cell index increases in the samerate as that expected for an exponential growth of the cells (suchregion in the CCI curve is represented as

Rectangle). If CCI is more than zero but somewhat smaller than 0.7/DT,then cell index increases in the rate slowed than that expected for anexponential growth (such region of the CCI curve is represented as

Rectangle). If CCI is about zero, then cell index shows a near constantvalue (such region of the CCI curve is represented as

Rectangle). If CCI is negative, then the cell index is decreasing withtime, showing the cells losing attachment to the electrode surface orchanging their morphology (such region of the curve is shown as

Rectangle). If CCI is very negative, then the cell index decreasesrapidly with time, showing that either cells lose attachment to theelectrode surfaces quickly or cells change their morphology very quickly(such region of the CCI curve is represented as

Rectangle). The transient, quick noise in the CCI values are removed sothat the whole CCI curve is represented after compound addition by one,two or three black/white-shaded rectangles.

FIG. 17 shows the cell response profile of each cell line tested againstthe indicated chemotherapeutic agents. For each cell line and compound,the time-dependent cell change index (CCI) was calculated from theircorresponding RT-CES responses at an IC50 concentration. (IC 50 is timedependent so that the IC50 concentration at 30 h, or the concentrationclosest to that, after drug addition is used). The specific CCI curvesas related to specific cellular responses were coded according to theconvention described in FIG. 16C and displayed in groups of compoundswith similar mechanism of action. DOX: doxorubicin; 5-F: 5-Fluorouracil;COL: Colcemid; TAXOL: paclitaxel; VIN: vinblastin; OLOM: Olomoucine;ROS: Roscovitine; STAU: Staurosporine; TAMO: Tamoxifan; RIFA:Rifarnpicin; ACEA-1: an ACEA test compound.

FIG. 18. Dynamic monitoring of cell proliferation. H1080 fibrosarcomacells, H460 lung cancer cells, HepG2 hepatosarcoma cancer cells andNIH3T3 mouse fibroblast cell lines were seeded at a density of 2500 and10,000 cells per well of ACEA 96× e-Plate device. The adhesion,spreading and proliferation of the cells were dynamically monitoredevery 30 minutes using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system ofthe presnet invention.

FIG. 19. Correlation between cell-substrate impedance measurement (asshown here, Cell Index) and number of cells seeded and comparison ofCell Index with MTT. (A) Increasing numbers of NIH3T3 ranging from 100cells all the way up to 10,000 cells were seeded in a device of thepresent invention and the cells were monitored for 10 hours at whichpoint the Cell Index was obtained. The Cell Index value was plottedagainst the corresponding number of cells. (B) The cells described inFIG. 19A were assayed by MTT assay at the end of the experiment and theoptical density at 590 nm was plotted against the number of cellsseeded.

FIG. 20. Dynamic monitoring of drug interaction with target cells usinga cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention.(A) A549 cells were seeded in a device of present invention at a densityof 10,000 cells per well and the cells were continuously monitored up to24 hours at which point paclitaxel was added at the indicated finalconcentrations. (B) Annexin V staining of A549 cells treated with DMSOor 12.5 nM paclitaxel for 20 hours. The cells were observed withfluorescence microscope and images were captured with an attacheddigital camera.

FIG. 21. Dynamic monitoring of cell cycle arrest using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. A549 cells wereseeded in a device of present invention at 10,000 cells per well andcontinuously monitored using the RT-CES. The cells were treated witheither (A) DMSO or 100 μM Olomoucine (B) A549 cells growing on tissueculture dishes for 20 hours were treated with DMSO or 100 μM Olomoucine.Cell cycle analysis was performed by flow cytometry.

FIG. 22. Dynamic monitoring of cytotoxic compounds with target cellsusing a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of the presnetinvention. A549 cells were seeded in a device of the present inventionand continuously monitored using the RT-CES system. The cells weretreated with the indicated final concentrations of (A) staurosporine,(B) vinblastine and (C) 5-flourouracil.

FIG. 23. (A) CHO-M1 cells expressing the muscarinic M1 receptor wereseeded in the wells of ACEA 16× device (16× E-Plate, 16 well microtiterplate that has incorporated microelectrode arrays at the bottom of thewells) and continuously monitored using the RT-CES™ system. At 24 hourspost seeding the cells were stimulated with different doses of carbacolbetween 500 uM and 31.25 uM cabacol, plus media control. (B) The cellswere seeded and monitored as described in (A). However, prior tostimulation with indicated doses of carbacol, the cells were incubatedwith the M1 receptor antagonist, pirenzipine at a final concentration of50 uM.

FIG. 24. CHO-M3 cells were seeded on ACEA 16× devices (16× E-Plate),grown and stimulated with the indicated doses of carbacol as describedin FIG. 23 and monitored by RT-CES™ system.

FIG. 25. CHO cells which do not express the M1 and M3 receptors wereseeded on ACEA 16× device (16× E-Plate) and were treated with carbacoland pirenzipine as described in FIGS. 23 and 24. The cells do notrespond to the agonist carbacol (A) or the antagonist pirenzepine (B).

FIG. 26. CHO-M1 cells growing on ACEA 16× microtiter devices werestimulated with the indicated doses of carbacol and the dose-dependentcell-electrode impedance response was monitored by RT-CES.

FIG. 27 depicts the pharmacological characterization of carbachol-evokedC1 increases in Muscarinic 1 Receptor (M1) And Muscarinic 3 Receptor(M3) expressed in CHO cells: blockage by M1 selective antagonistpirenzepine. M1 and M3 muscarinic receptor cell lines were seeded at50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates (E-plates are microtiter platesthat have incorporated microelectrode arrays at the bottom of thewells). The cells were continuously monitored using the RT-CES system.At the indicated time point of treatment, increasing concentrations ofcarbachol (from 0 to 11 uM) were added to the cells and the cellresponse was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Carbacholleads to a dose-dependent and transient increase in CI in M1 (A) and M3(C). Delta cell index shown in (A) and (C) at a given time point wascalculated by subtracting the cell index at a standard time point fromthe cell index at the given time point. Here the standard time point wasthe last time point of the measurement before adding carbachol to theCHO cells (the first time point on the traces in A and C). Plotting thepeak Delta cell index responses versus the corresponding logconcentration allows for calculation of the EC₅₀ (0.59 uM and 0.67 uM)of carbachol for M1 (B) and M3 (D). For antagonist study, increasingconcentrations of pirenzepine (from 0 to 33 uM), a selective M1antagonist, were added to the cells 10 min prior to the application of afixed concentration carbachol (10 uM) and the cell response wasmonitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Delta cell index shownin (E) at a given time point was calculated by subtracting the cellindex at a standard time point from the cell index at the given timepoint. Here the standard time point was the last time point of themeasurement before adding carbachol to the cells (the first time pointon the traces in E). Pirenzepine blocked carbachol-induced Delta CIincreases in a concentration-dependant manner as shown in traces (E).Plotting the maximal blocking effects on cell index response versus thecorresponding log concentration allows for calculation of the IC₅₀ (˜0.6uM) of pirenzepine (F).

FIG. 28 depicts the carbachol-evoked increases of Cell Index (CI) of ratbasophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells expressing M3 and M2 receptors. M3and M2 muscarinic receptor cell lines were seeded at 50,000 cells perwell of ACEA E-plates. The cells were continuously monitored using theRT-CES system. At the indicated time point, increasing concentrations ofcarbachol (from 0 to 33 uM) were added to the cells and the cellresponse was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Carbacholleads to a dose-dependent and transient increase in CI in M3 (A) and M2(C). Plotting the peak cell index response versus the corresponding logconcentration allows for calculation of the EC₅₀ of carbachol for M3(B). Delta cell index shown in (A) at a given time point was calculatedby subtracting the cell index at a standard time point from the cellindex at the given time point. Here the standard time point was the lasttime point of the measurement before adding carbachol to the cells (thefirst time point on the traces in A).

FIG. 29 depicts histamine-evoked increases of Cell Index (CI) of CHO-K1cells expressing the human recombinant H1 receptor (hH1-C1): pharmacoloycharacterization. Cell lines-were seeded at 50,000 cells per well ofACEA E-plates. The cells were continuously monitored using the RT-CESsystem. At the indicated time point, increasing concentrations ofhistamine (from 0 (CTR) to 30 uM) were added to the cells and the cellresponse was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Histamineleads to a dose-dependent and transient increase in CI in hH-C1 cellsshown in traces (A). Plotting the peak normalized cell index responseversus the corresponding log concentration allows for calculation of theEC₅₀ of histamine (B). For blocking experiment, various concentrationsof brompheniramine (histamine receptor antagonist, between 0 uM and 30uM) were added to the cells 10 min prior to the addition of a fixedconcentration histamine (20 nM)) and the cell response was monitoredevery 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Brompheniramine blockedhistamine-induced normalized-CI increase in a concentration-dependantmanner as shown in traces (C). Plotting the maximal blocking effects oncell index response versus the corresponding log concentration allowsfor calculation of the IC₅₀ of brompheniramine (D). Normalized cellindex shown in (A) and (C) at a given time point was calculated bydividing the Cell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at areference time point. Here the reference time point was the last timepoint of the measurement before adding histamine to the cells. Note thatsometime, we refer the reference time point for calculating normalizedcell index as the time point at which the normalization is (i.e.,normalization is at the reference time point).

FIG. 30 depicts an example of [Arg⁸]Vasopressin (AVP)-evoked increasesof Cell Index (CI) of 1321-N1 cells expressing the human recombinantvasopressin (V1a) receptor (V1a-C1): Blockage by selective non-activeanalogue [β-Mercapto-β,β-cyclopentamethylene-propionyll, O-Et-Tyr²,Val⁴, Arg⁸]Vasopressin (βM AVP). V1a-C1 cells were seeded at 50,000cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells were continuously monitoredusing the RT-CES system. At the indicated time point, increasingconcentrations of AVP were added to the cells and the cell response wasmonitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. AVP leads to adose-dependent and transient increase in CI in V1a-C1 cells shown intraces (A). Plotting the peak normalized-cell-index response versus thecorresponding log concentration allows for calculation of the EC₅₀ ofAVP (B). For blocking experiment, various concentrations of βM AVP wereadded to the cells 10 min prior to the addition of a fixed concentrationof AVP (1 uM) and the cell response was monitored every 3 minutes by theRT-CES system. βM AVP blocked AVP-induced CI increases in aconcentration-dependant manner as shown in traces (C). Plotting themaximal blocking effects on cell index response versus the correspondinglog concentration allows for calculation of the IC₅₀ of βM AVP (D).Normalized cell index shown in (A) and (C) at a given time point wascalculated by dividing the Cell Index at the time point by the CellIndex at a reference time point. Here the reference time point was thelast time point of the measurement before adding AVP to the cells. Notethat sometime, we refer the reference time point for calculatingnormalized cell index as the time point at which the normalization is(i.e., normalization is at the reference time point).

FIG. 31 depicts histamine-evoked increases of Cell Index (CI) of HeLacells which express the endogenous histamine receptors: Blockage byantagonist brompheniramine. HeLa cells were seeded at 50,000 cells perwell of ACEA E-plates. The cells were continuously monitored using theRT-CES system. At the indicated time point, increasing concentrations ofhistamine were added to the cells and the cell response was monitoredevery 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Histamine leads to adose-dependent and transient increase in CI in HeLa cells shown intraces (A). Plotting the peak cell index response versus thecorresponding log concentration allows for calculation of the EC₅₀ ofhistamine (B). For the antagonist study, increasing concentrations ofbrompheniramine were added to the cells 10 min prior to the applicationof a fixed concentration histamine (5 uM) and the cell response wasmonitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Brompheniramine blockedhistamine-induced CI increases in a concentration-dependant manner asshown in traces (C). Plotting the maximal blocking effects on cell indexresponse versus the corresponding log concentration allows forcalculation of the IC₅₀ of brompheniramine (D). Normalized cell indexshown in (A) and (C) at a given time point was calculated by dividingthe Cell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at a reference timepoint. Here the reference time point was the last time point of themeasurement before adding histamine to the cells. Note that sometime, werefer the reference time point for calculating normalized cell index asthe time point at which the normalization is (i.e., normalization is atthe reference time point).

FIG. 32 depicts Endothelin 1-evoked increases of Cell Index (CI) of HeLacells which express the endogenous endothelin receptors. HeLa cells wereseeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells werecontinuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At the indicated timepoint, increasing concentrations of histamine were added to the cellsand the cell response was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CESsystem. Endothelin 1 leads to a dose-dependent and transient increase inCI in HeLa cells shown in traces (A). Plotting the peak cell indexresponse versus the corresponding log concentration allows forcalculation of the EC₅₀ of endothelin 1 (B). Delta cell index shown in(A) at a given time point was calculated by subtracting the cell indexat a standard time point from the cell index at the given time point.Here the standard time point was the last time point of the measurementbefore adding Endothelin to the cells (the first time point on thetraces in A).

FIG. 33 depicts isoproterenol-evoked decreases of cell index (CI) Of C6glioma cells which express the endogenous B-adrenergic receptors:Demonstration Of The Involvement Gs And Adenylate Cyclase. C6 cells wereseeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells werecontinuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At the indicated timepoint, increasing concentrations of isoproterenol were added to thecells and the cell response was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CESsystem. Isoproterenol leads to a dose-dependent and transient decreasein CI in C6 cells shown in traces (A). Plotting the peak cell indexresponse versus the corresponding log concentration allows forcalculation of the EC₅₀ of isoproterenol (B). For the antagonist study,increasing concentrations of alprenolol were added to the cells 10 minprior to the application of a fixed concentration isoproterenol (10 uM)and the cell response was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CESsystem. alprenolol blocked isoproterenol-induced CI decreases in aconcentration-dependant manner as shown in traces (C). Plotting themaximal blocking effects on cell index response versus the correspondinglog concentration allows for calculation of the IC₅₀ of alprenolol (D).The effects of isoproterenol can be mimicked by dibutyl-cAMP, a cellmembrane permeable analogue of cAMP, and forskolin, an adenylate cyclaseactivator, shown in traces (E,G) and curves (F, H), respectively.Normalized cell index shown in (A, C, E and G) at a given time point wascalculated by dividing the Cell Index at the time point by the CellIndex at a reference time point. Here the reference time point was thelast time point of the measurement before adding Isoproterenol to thecells.

FIG. 34. depicts Calcitonin-evoked increases of Cell Index (CI) of CHOcells which express the endogenous calcitonin receptors. CHO cells wereseeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells werecontinuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At the indicated timepoint, increasing concentrations of calcitonin were added to the cellsand the cell response was monitored every 3 minutes by the RT-CESsystem. Calcitonin leads to a dose-dependent and transient decrease inCI in CHO cells shown in traces (A). Plotting the peak cell indexresponse versus the corresponding log concentration allows forcalculation of the EC₅₀ (0.385 nM) of calcitonin (B). Normalized cellindex shown in (A) at a given time point was calculated by dividing theCell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at a reference timepoint. Here the reference time point was the last time point of themeasurement before adding Calcitonin to the cells.

FIG. 35 depicts an example where Histamine induces focal adhesionassembly and membrane ruffling in hH1-C1 cells. The hH1-C1 cells wereseeded on eight-well chamber slides with the density of 10,000 cells perwell for one day. After an overnight incubation in serum-free medium,the cells were treated with 100 nM Histamine for 5 minutes. The cellswere fixed, stained with FITC-Phalloidin and anti-Paxillin antibody andvisualized by using an immunofluorescence microscope. Membrane rufflingcan be observed (arrows).

FIG. 36. depicts an example where AVP induces focal adhesion assemblyand membrane ruffling in V1a-C1 cells. The V1a-C1 cells were seeded oneight-well chamber slides with the density of 10,000 cells per well forone day. After an overnight incubation in serum-free medium, the cellswere treated with 1 uM AVP for 5 minutes. The cells were fixed, stainedwith FITC-Phalloidin and anti-Paxillin antibody and visualized by usingan immunofluorescence microscope. Membrane ruffling can be observed(arrows).

FIG. 37. Mechanistic studies of Histamine-induced increases of CI inhH1-C1 cells by various reagents ranging from pathway blockers andtoxins. Cell lines were seeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEAE-plates. The cells were continuously monitored using the RT-CES system.Bisindolylmalemide (Bis, 10 uM), a PKC inhibitor (A); PP2 (10 uM), a Srcinhibitor (B); latrunculin (1 uM), a cell adhesion blocker (C); ROCK (10uM), a Rho kinase inhibitor (D); PD98059 (PD, 10 uM), a MEK inhibitor(E) and U73122 (10 uM), a PLC inhibitor (F) were added alone or 10 minbefore the addition of histamine (20 nM). The cells were continuouslymonitored by the RT-CES system to the end of the experiment. NormalizedCI traces are shown respectively. Normalized cell index shown in (A-F)at a given time point was calculated by dividing the Cell Index at thetime point by the Cell Index at a reference time point. Here thereference time point was the last time point of the measurement beforeadding histamine (20 nM) to the cells.

FIG. 38. depicts a application of RT-CES System to rank the potency ofselective H1 antagonists on hH1-C1 cells. A panel of selective H1antagonists and H2 antagonist (for negative control purpose) were chosento test on hH1-C1 cells by using RT-CES system. The cell lines wereseeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells werecontinuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At the indicated timepoint, increasing concentrations of a given antagonists were added tothe cells 10 min prior to the addition of a fixed concentration ofhistamine (20 nM) and the cell response was monitored every 3 minutes bythe RT-CES system. Four chosen H1 antagonists (triprolidine, loratidine,mirtazepine and mepyramine) blocked histamine-induced CI increases in aconcentration-dependant manner with different potencies as reflected byIC₅₀s indicated. H2 selective antagonist tiotidine did not blockhistamine-induced CI responses at the highest concentration (10 uM)tested.

FIG. 39. depicts an application Of RT-CES System to rank the potency ofselective H1 antagonists as inverse agonists. The cell lines were seededat 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells were continuouslymonitored using the RT-CES system. Increasing concentrations of a givenantagonist were added to the cells and the cell response was monitoredevery 3 minutes by the RT-CES system. Four chosen H1 antagonists(triprolidine, loratidine, mirtazepine and mepyramine) alone causes aconcentration-dependent decreases of CI with different potencies asindicated EC₅₀, and while H2 antagonist (tiotidine) did not induce anychanges in CI at the highest concentration (10 uM) tested.

FIG. 40 depicts the characterization of activation of overexpressedGPCRs by RT-CES system. Human recombinant histamine 1 receptor (H1) andhuman recombinant vasopressin 1a (V1a) receptor (panel A and panel C,respectively) were seeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. Thecells were continuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At theindicated time point, increasing concentrations of histamine were addedto the cells and the cell response was monitored every 3 min. A typicalset of CI traces by H1 cell line and V1a cell line were shown. Arrowsindicate the addition of the ligand. Plotting the peak cell indexresponse versus the corresponding log concentration allows forcalculation of the EC₅₀. Panel B demonstrates cell ruffling and celladhesion enhancement after 5 min application of respective ligand.Histamine increase cell ruffling (c, arrow head) and cell adhesionassembly (d, arrow head) in H1 cells and AVP increase cell ruffling (g,arrow head) and cell adhesion assembly (h, arrow head) in V1a cell.

FIG. 41 depicts a pharmacological study of H1 cell line and V1a cellline coupled to Gq: Generation of EC_(50s). H1 or V1a cell lines wereseeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cells werecontinuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At the indicated timepoint (arrows), increasing concentrations of histamine (A) or AVP (C)were added to the cells and the cell response was monitored every 3 minby the RT-CES system. A typical set of CI traces were shown. Plottingthe peak cell index responses versus the corresponding logconcentrations allows for calculation of the EC₅₀ of histamine (B) andAVP (D). Normalized cell index shown in (A and C) at a given time pointwas calculated by dividing the Cell Index at the time point by the CellIndex at a reference time point. Here the reference time point was thelast time point of the measurement before adding histamine (A) or AVP(C) to the cells.

FIG. 42 depicts a pharmacological study of D1 cell line (Gs) and 5-HT1Acell line (Gi): Generation of EC_(50s). D1 or 5-HT1A cell lines wereseeded at 25,000 or 12,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. The cellswere continuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At the indicatedtime point (arrows), increasing concentrations of dopamine (A) or 5-HT(C) were added to the cells and the cell response was monitored every 3min by the RT-CES system. CI traces were shown. Plotting the peak cellindex responses versus the corresponding log concentrations allows forcalculation of the EC_(50s) of DA (B) and 5-HT (D). Normalized cellindex shown in (A and C) at a given time point was calculated bydividing the Cell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at areference time point. Here the reference time point was the last timepoint of the measurement before adding dopamine (A) or 5-HT (C) to thecells.

FIG. 43 depicts a pharmacological study of endogenous GPCRs by variousligands: Generation of EC_(50s). HeLa cells (A) CHO cells (C) and C6cells (E) were seeded at 50,000 cells per well of ACEA E-plates. Thecells were continuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At theindicated time point (arrows), increasing concentrations of histamine(A) calcitonin (C) or isoproterenol (E) were added to the cells and thecell response was monitored every 3 min by the RT-CES system. Plottingthe peak cell index responses versus the corresponding logconcentrations allows for calculation of the EC₅₀, of histamine (B)calcitonin (D) and isoproterenol (F) respectively. Normalized cell indexshown in (A, C and E) at a given time point was calculated by dividingthe Cell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at a reference timepoint. Here the reference time point was the last time point of themeasurement before adding histamine (A) or calcitonin (C) orisoproterenol (E) to the cells.

FIG. 44 depicts an assessment of specificity of cellular response to EGFand insulin treatments. COS7 cells were pretreated for 1 hour witheither a specific EGFR inhibitor or vehicle. Cells were then stimulatedwith insulin or EGF. (A) Cells treated with insulin or EGF showed acharacteristic rise in cell index. (B) When pretreated with 10 uM EGFRinhibitor, 4557W, the EGF response is inhibited while the insulinresponse remains intact. Normalized cell index shown in (A and B) at agiven time point was calculated by dividing the Cell Index at the timepoint by the Cell Index at a reference time point. Here the referencetime point was the last time point of measurement before treatment ofthe cells with EGF or insulin.

FIG. 45 depicts a characterization of COS7 cellular response to EGF andHGF treatments. Time-dependent normalized-cell-index traces are shownfor COS7 cells treated with EGF (A) and HGF (B). Maximum cell indices(i.e., cell indexes) were determined from each trace corresponding totreatment of cells with one concentration of EGF or HGF and doseresponse curves were generated by plotting % control (relative to thenormalized-cell-index response of the sample treated with maximum ligandconcentration) versus ligand concentration. (C) ELISA assay ofphosphorylated EGFR were performed on COS7 cells treated with varyingconcentrations of EGF. Dose response curves were generated by plotting %control (relative to the response of the sample treated with maximumligand concentration) of absorbance readings versus ligandconcentration. Normalized cell index shown in (A and B) at a given timepoint was calculated by dividing the Cell Index at the time point by theCell Index at a reference time point. Here the reference time point wasthe last time point before adding EGF (A) or HGF (B).

FIG. 46 depicts an optimization of assay conditions for screening ofinhibitors against RTKs. (A) Increasing number of COS7 cells wereplated, treated with EGF and cell indexes measured every minute overseveral hours. B) Statistical evaluation of label-free EGFR inhibitorscreening assay. Z′, S/N, S/B and % CV were determined to assess qualityof assay.

FIG. 47: depicts (A) Graphical representation of a screen of 81compounds mostly from Sigma's enzyme inhibitor Ligand Set. Compoundswere screened in singlets at 5-10 uM concentrations. Red circlerepresents negative control and blue circle represent positivie control.(B) A collection of kinase inhibitors were screened for inhibition ofEGFR activity. (C) EGFRI, 4557W, was identified as potent inhibitor ofEGFR signaling from both screens. Cellular response to EGF afterpretreatment with varying concentration of inhibitor were measured anddose response curves generated by plotting % control of maximum cellindex versus ligand concentration.

FIG. 48 depicts a comparison of unique signaling patterns of selectedimmortalized cell lines after treatment with various ligands for RTK.Cells were plated, serum starved and treated with ligands. Tracesindicated with “S” represent cells treated or stimulated with ligand,and traces indicated with “U” represent cells treated with vehiclecontrol (i.e., unstimulated). Response was measured every minute anddata normalized to time point just before ligand addition. Error barsrepresent standard deviation of n=4. EGF=Epidermal Growth Factor;FGF=Fibroblast Growth Factor; HGF=Hepatocyte Growth Factor;PDGF=Platelet Derived Growth Factor.

FIG. 49 depicts the monitoring of cancer cell proliferation and itsinhbition by inhibitors of tyrosine kinases using the RT-CES system.MCF-7 breast cancer cells were seeded at a density of 8000 cells perwell in ACEA e-plates. The cells were continuously monitored using theRT-CES system for about 48 hours at which time they were treated withstaurosporine or DMSO as a control. Cellular proliferation wascontinually monitored by the RT-CES.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

A. Definitions

For clarity of disclosure, and not by way of limitation, the detaileddescription of the invention is divided into the subsections thatfollow.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skillin the art to which this invention belongs. All patents, applications,published applications and other publications referred to herein areincorporated by reference in their entirety. If a definition set forthin this section is contrary to or otherwise inconsistent with adefinition set forth in the patents, applications, publishedapplications and other publications that are herein incorporated byreference, the definition set forth in this section prevails over thedefinition that is incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, “a” or “an” means “at least one” or “one or more.”

As used herein, “membrane” is a sheet of material.

As used herein, “biocompatible membrane” means a membrane that does nothave deleterious effects on cells, including the viability, attachment,spreading, motility, growth, or cell division.

When a suspension of viable, unimpaired, epithelial or endothelial cellsis added to a vessel, a surface of the vessel “is suitable for cellattachment” when a significant percentage of the cells are adhering tothe surface of the vessel within twelve hours. Preferably, at least 50%of the cells are adhering to the surface of the vessel within twelvehours. More preferably, a surface that is suitable for cell attachmenthas surface properties so that at least 70% of the cells are adhering tothe surface within twelve hours of plating (i.e., adding cells to thevessel). Even more preferably, the surface properties of a surface thatis suitable for cell attachment results in at least 90% of the cellsadhering to the surface within twelve hours of plating. Most preferably,the surface properties of a surface that is suitable for cell attachmentresults in at least 90% of the cells adhering to the surface withineight, six, four, two hours of plating. To have desired surfaceproperties for cell attachment, the surface may need tochemically-treated (e.g. treatment with an acid and/or with a base),and/or physically treated (e.g. treatment with plasma), and/orbiochemically treated (e.g. coated with one or more molecules orbiomolecules that promotes cell attachment). In the present invention, abiocompatible surface (such as a membrane) preferably is suitable forthe attachment of cells of the type that are to be used in an assay thatuses the biocompatible surface (e.g., membrane), and most preferably,allows the attachment of at least 90% of the cells that contact thebiocompatible surface during the assay.

A “biomolecular coating” is a coating on a surface that comprises amolecule that is a naturally occurring biomolecule or biochemical, or abiochemical derived from or based on one or more naturally occurringbiomolecules or biochemicals. For example, a biomolecular coating cancomprise an extracellular matrix component (e.g., fibronectin,collagens), or a derivative thereof, or can comprise a biochemical suchas polylysine or polyornithine, which are polymeric molecules based onthe naturally occurring biochemicals lysine and ornithine. Polymericmolecules based on naturally occurring biochemicals such as amino acidscan use isomers or enantiomers of the naturally-occurring biochemicals.

An “extracellular matrix component” is a molecule that occurs in theextracellular matrix of an animal. It can be a component of anextracellular matrix from any species and from any tissue type.Nonlimiting examples of extracellular matrix components includelaminins, collagens fibronectins, other glycoproteins, peptides,glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, etc. Extracellular matrix componentscan also include growth factors.

An “electrode” is a structure having a high electrical conductivity,that is, an electrical conductivity much higher than the electricalconductivity of the surrounding materials.

As used herein, an “electrode structure” refers to a single electrode,particularly one with a complex structure (as, for example, a spiralelectrode structure), or a collection of at least two electrode elementsthat are electrically connected together. All the electrode elementswithin an “electrode structure” are electrically connected.

As used herein, “electrode element” refers to a single structuralfeature of an electrode structure, such as, for example, a fingerlikeprojection of an interdigitated electrode structure.

As used herein, an “electrode array” or “electrode structure unit” istwo or more electrode structures that are constructed to have dimensionsand spacing such that they can, when connected to a signal source,operate as a unit to generate an electrical field in the region ofspaces around the electrode structures. Preferred electrode structureunits of the present invention can measure impedance changes due to cellattachment to an electrode surface. Non-limiting examples of electrodestructure units are interdigitated electrode structure units andconcentric electrode structure units.

An “electrode bus” is a portion of an electrode that connects individualelectrode elements or substructures. An electrode bus provides a commonconduction path from individual electrode elements or individualelectrode substructures to another electrical connection. In the devicesof the present invention, an electrode bus can contact each electrodeelement of an electrode structure and provide an electrical connectionpath to electrical traces that lead to a connection pad.

“Electrode traces” or “electrically conductive traces” or “electricaltraces”, are electrically conductive paths that extend from electrodesor electrode elements or electrode structures toward one end or boundaryof a device or apparatus for connecting the electrodes or electrodeelements or electrode structures to an impedance analyzer. The end orboundary of a device may correspond to the connection pads on the deviceor apparatus.

A “connection pad” is an area on an apparatus or a device of the presentinvention which is electrically connected to at least one electrode orall electrode elements within at least one electrode structure on anapparatus or a device and which can be operatively connected to externalelectrical circuits (e.g., an impedance measurement circuit or a signalsource). The electrical connection between a connection pad and animpedance measurement circuit or a signal source can be direct orindirect, through any appropriate electrical conduction means such asleads or wires. Such electrical conduction means may also go throughelectrode or electrical conduction paths located on other regions of theapparatus or device.

“Interdigitated” means having projections coming one direction thatinterlace with projections conning from a different direction in themanner of the fingers of folded hands (with the caveat thatinterdigitated electrode elements preferably do not contact oneanother).

As used herein, a “high probability of contacting an electrode element”means that, if a cell is randomly positioned within the sensor area of adevice or apparatus of the present invention, the probability of a cell(or particle) contacting on an electrode element, calculated from theaverage diameter of a cell used on or in a device or apparatus of thepresent invention, the sizes of the electrode elements, and the size ofthe gaps between electrode elements, is greater than about 50%, morepreferably greater than about 60%, yet more preferably greater thanabout 70%, and even more preferably greater than about 80%, greater thanabout 90%, or greater than about 95%.

As used herein, “at least two electrodes fabricated on said substrate”means that the at least two electrodes are fabricated or made orproduced on the substrate. The at least two electrodes can be on thesame side of the substrate or on the different side of the substrate.The substrate may have multiple layers, the at least two electrodes canbe either on the same or on the different layers of the substrate.

As used herein, “at least two electrodes fabricated to a same side ofsaid substrate” means that the at least two electrodes are fabricated onthe same side of the substrate.

As used herein, “at least two electrodes fabricated to a same plane ofsaid substrate” means that, if the nonconducting substrate has multiplelayers, the at least two electrodes are fabricated to the same layer ofthe substrate.

As used herein, “said . . . electrodes [or electrode structures] havesubstantially the same surface area” means that the surface areas of theelectrodes referred to are not substantially different from each other,so that the impedance change due to cell attachment or growth on any oneof the electrodes (or electrode structures) referred to will contributeto the overall detectable change in impedance to a same or similardegree as the impedance change due to cell attachment or growth on anyother of the electrodes (or electrode structures) referred to. In otherwords, where electrodes (or electrode structures) have substantially thesame surface area, any one of the electrodes can contribute to overallchange in impedance upon cell attachment or growth on the electrode. Inmost cases, the ratio of surface area between the largest electrode andthe smallest electrode that have “substantially the same surface area”is less than 10. Preferably, the ratio of surface area between thelargest electrode and the smallest electrode of an electrode array isless than 5, 4, 3, 2, 1.5, 1.2 or 1.1. More preferably, the at least twoelectrodes of an electrode structure have nearly identical or identicalsurface area.

As used herein, “said device has a surface suitable for cell attachmentor growth” means that the electrode and/or non-electrode area of theapparatus has appropriate physical, chemical or biological propertiessuch that cells of interest can viably attach on the surface and newcells can continue to attach, while the cell culture grows, on thesurface of the apparatus. However, it is not necessary that the device,or the surface thereof, contain substances necessary for cell viabilityor growth. These necessary substances, e.g., nutrients or growthfactors, can be supplied in a medium. Preferably, when a suspension ofviable, unimpaired, epithelial or endothelial cells is added to the“surface suitable for cell attachment” when at least 50% of the cellsare adhering to the surface within twelve hours. More preferably, asurface that is suitable for cell attachment has surface properties sothat at least 70% of the cells are adhering to the surface within twelvehours of plating (i.e., adding cells to the chamber or well thatcomprises the said device). Even more preferably, the surface propertiesof a surface that is suitable for cell attachment results in at least90% of the cells adhering to the surface within twelve hours of plating.Most preferably, the surface properties of a surface that is suitablefor cell attachment results in at least 90% of the cells adhering to thesurface within eight, six, four, two hours of plating.

As used herein, “detectable change in impedance between or among saidelectrodes” (or “detectable change in impedance between or among saidelectrode structures”) means that the impedance between or among saidelectrodes (or electrode structures) would have a significant changethat can be detected by an impedance analyzer or impedance measurementcircuit when molecule binding reaction occurs on the electrode surfaces.The impedance change refers to the difference in impedance values whenmolecule binding reaction occurs on the electrode surface of theapparatus and when no molecular reaction occurs on the electrodesurface. Alternatively, the impedance change refers to the difference inimpedance values when cells are attached to the electrode surface andwhen cells are not attached to the electrode surface, or when thenumber, type, activity, adhesiveness, or morphology of cells attached tothe electrode-comprising surface of the apparatus changes. In mostcases, the change in impedance is larger than 0.1% to be detectable.Preferably, the detectable change in impedance is larger than 1%, 2%,5%, or 8%. More preferably, the detectable change in impedance is largerthan 10%. Impedance between or among electrodes is typically a functionof the frequency of the applied electric field for measurement.“Detectable change in impedance between or among said electrodes” doesnot require the impedance change at all frequencies being detectable.“Detectable change in impedance between or among said electrodes” onlyrequires a detectable change in impedance at any single frequency (ormultiple frequencies). In addition, impedance has two components,resistance and reactance (reactance can be divided into two categories,capacitive reactance and inductive reactance). “Detectable change inimpedance between or among said electrodes” requires only that eitherone of resistance and reactance has a detectable change at any singlefrequency or multiple frequencies. In the present application, impedanceis the electrical or electronic impedance. The method for themeasurement of such impedance is achieved by, (1) applying a voltagebetween or among said electrodes at a given frequency (or multiplefrequencies, or having specific voltage waveform) and monitoring theelectrical current through said electrodes at the frequency (or multiplefrequencies, or having specific waveform), dividing the voltageamplitude value by the current amplitude value to derive the impedancevalue; (2) applying an electric current of a single frequency component(or multiple frequencies or having specific current wave form) throughsaid electrodes and monitoring the voltage resulted between or amongsaid electrodes at the frequency (or multiple frequencies, or havingspecific waveform), dividing the voltage amplitude value by the currentamplitude value to derive the impedance value; (3) other methods thatcan measure or determine electric impedance. Note that in thedescription above of “dividing the voltage amplitude value by thecurrent amplitude value to derive the impedance value”, the “division”is done for the values of current amplitude and voltage amplitude atsame frequencies. Measurement of such electric impedance is anelectronic or electrical process that does not involve the use of anyreagents.

As used herein, “said at least two electrodes have substantiallydifferent surface area” means that the surface areas of any electrodesare not similar to each other so that the impedance change due to cellattachment or growth on the larger electrode will not contribute to theoverall detectable impedance to a same or similar degree as theimpedance change due to cell attachment or growth on the smallerelectrodes. Preferably, any impedance change due to cell attachment orgrowth on the larger electrode is significantly smaller than theimpedance change due to cell attachment or growth on thesmaller-electrode. Ordinarily, the ratio of surface area between thelargest electrode and the smallest electrode is more than 10.Preferably, the ratio of surface area between the largest electrode andthe smallest electrode is more than 20, 30, 40, 50 or 100.

As used herein, “multiple pairs of electrodes or electrode structuresspatially arranged according to wells of a multi-well microplate” meansthat the multiple pairs of electrodes or electrode structures of adevice or apparatus are spatially arranged to match the spatialconfiguration of wells of a multi-well microplate so that, whendesirable, the device can be inserted into, joined with, or attached toa multiwell plate (for example, a bottomless multiwell plate) such thatmultiple wells of the multi-well microplate will comprise electrodes orelectrode structures.

As used herein, “arranged in a row-column configuration” means that, interms of electric connection, the position of an electrode, an electrodearray or a switching circuit is identified by both a row position numberand a column position number.

As used herein, “each well contains substantially same number . . . ofcells” means that the lowest number of cells in a well is at least 50%of the highest number of cells in a well. Preferably, the lowest numberof cells in a well is at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% of thehighest number of cells in a well. More preferably, each well containsan identical number of cells.

As used herein, “each well contains . . . same type of cells” meansthat, for the intended purpose, each well contains same type of cells;it is not necessary that each well contains exactly identical type ofcells. For example, if the intended purpose is that each well containsmammalian cells, it is permissible if each well contains same type ofmammalian cells, e.g., human cells, or different mammalian cells, e.g.,human cells as well as other non-human mammalian cells such as mice,goat or monkey cells, etc.

As used herein, “each well contains . . . serially differentconcentration of a test compound” means that each well contains a testcompound with a serially diluted concentrations, e.g., an one-tenthserially diluted concentrations of 1 M, 0.1 M, 0.01 M, etc.

As used herein, “dose-response curve” means the dependent relationshipof response of cells on the dose concentration of a test compound. Theresponse of cells can be measured by many different parameters. Forexample, a test compound is suspected to have cytotoxicity and causecell death. Then the response of cells can be measured by percentage ofnon-viable (or viable) cells after the cells are treated by the testcompound. Plotting this percentage of non-viable (or viable) cells as afunction of the does concentration of the test compound constructs adose response curve. In the present application, the percentage ofnon-viable (or viable) cells can be expressed in terms of measuredimpedance values, or in terms of cell index derived from impedancemeasurement, or in terms of cell change indexes. For example, for a givecell type and under specific cellular physiological condition (e.g., aparticular cell culture medium), cell index can be shown to have alinear correlation or positive correlation with the number of viablecells in a well from which cell index was derived from the impedancemeasurement. Thus, in the present application, one can plot cell indexas a function of the dose concentration of the test compound toconstruct a “dose-response curve”. Note that, generally, cell index notonly correlate with the number of viable cells in the wells but alsorelate to the cell morphology and cell attachment. Thus plotting cellindex versus doss concentration provides information not only aboutnumber of cells but also about their physiological status (e.g. cellmorphology and cell adhesion). Furthermore, an important advantageoffered by the system and devices of the present application is that ina single experiment, one can obtain “dose-response curves” at multipletime points since the system allows for the continuous monitoring ofcells and provides impedance measurement at many time points over a timerange as short as a few minutes to as long as days or weeks. In anotherexample, a test compound may result in a change in cell morphology,which can be monitored or measured by cell-substrate impedance. Thus,cell-substrate impedance and cell index may follow a dose-dependentrelationship on the concentration of the test compound. One mayconstruct dose-response by plotting the maximum change in cell-substrateimpedance or maximum change in cell index after adding the test compoundat each compound concentration to the cells with respect to thecell-substrate impedance or cell index prior to the addition of the testcompound. From such dose-response curve, one may derive importantparameters such as EC50 or IC50 of the test compound.

As used herein, “the electrodes have, along the length of themicrochannel, a length that is substantially less than the largestsingle-dimension of a particle to be analyzed” means that the electrodeshave, along the length of the microchannel, a length that is at leastless than 90% of the largest single-dimension of a particle to beanalyzed. Preferably, the electrodes have, along the length of themicrochannel, a length that is at least less than 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%,40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, 5% of the largest single-dimension of a particle tobe analyzed.

As used herein, “the microelectrodes span the entire height of themicrochannel” means that the microelectrodes span at least 70% of theentire height of the microchannel. Preferably, microelectrodes span atleast 80%, 90%, 95% of the entire height of the microchannel. Morepreferably, microelectrodes span at least 100% of the entire height ofthe microchannel.

As used herein, “an aperture having a pore size that equals to or isslightly larger than size of said particle” means that aperture has apore size that at least equals to the particle size but less than 300%of the particle size. Here both pore size and particle size are measuredin terms of single dimension value.

As used herein, “microelectrode strip or electrode strip” means that anon-conducting substrate strip on which electrodes or electrodestructure units are fabricated or incorporated. The non-limitingexamples of the non-conducting substrate strips include polymermembrane, glass, plastic sheets, ceramics, insulator-on-semiconductor,fiber glass (like those for manufacturing printed-circuits-board).Electrode structure units having different geometries can be fabricatedor made on the substrate strip by any suitable microfabrication,micromachining, or other methods. Non-limiting examples of electrodegeometries include interdigitated electrodes, circle-on-line electrodes,diamond-on-line electrodes, castellated electrodes, or sinusoidalelectrodes. Characteristic dimensions of these electrode geometries mayvary from as small as less than 5 micron, or less than 10 micron, to aslarge as over 200 micron, over 500 micron, over 1 mm. The characteristicdimensions of the electrode geometries refer to the smallest width ofthe electrode elements, or smallest gaps between the adjacent electrodeelements, or size of a repeating feature on the electrode geometries.The microelectrode strip can be of any geometry for the presentinvention. One exemplary geometry for the microelectrode strips isrectangular shape—having the width of the strip between less than 50micron to over 10 mm, and having the length of the strip between lessthan 60 micron to over 15 mm. An exemplary geometry of themicroelectrode strips may have a geometry having a width of 200 micronand a length of 20 mm. A single microelectrode strip may have twoelectrodes serving as a measurement unit, or multiple suchtwo-electrodes serving as multiple measurement units, or a singleelectrode structure unit as a measurement unit, or multiple electrodestructure units serving as multiple electrode structure units. In oneexemplary embodiment, when multiple electrode structure units arefabricated on a single microelectrode strip, these electrode structureunits are positioned along the length direction of the strip. Theelectrode structure units may be of squared-shape, or rectangular-shape,or circle shapes. Each of electrode structure units may occupy size fromless than 50 micron by 50 micron, to larger than 2 mm×2 mm.

As used herein, “sample” refers to anything which may contain a moietyto be isolated, manipulated, measured, quantified, detected or analyzedusing apparatuses, microplates or methods in the present application.The sample may be a biological sample, such as a biological fluid or abiological tissue. Examples of biological fluids include suspension ofcells in a medium such as cell culture medium, urine, blood, plasma,serum, saliva, semen, stool, sputum, cerebral spinal fluid, tears,mucus, amniotic fluid or the like. Biological tissues are aggregates ofcells, usually of a particular kind together with their intercellularsubstance that form one of the structural materials of a human, animal,plant, bacterial, fungal or viral structure, including connective,epithelium, muscle and nerve tissues. Examples of biological tissuesalso include organs, tumors, lymph nodes, arteries and individualcell(s). The biological samples may further include cell suspensions,solutions containing biological molecules (e.g. proteins, enzymes,nucleic acids, carbohydrates, chemical molecules binding to biologicalmolecules).

As used herein, a “liquid (fluid) sample” refers to a sample thatnaturally exists as a liquid or fluid, e.g., a biological fluid. A“liquid sample” also refers to a sample that naturally exists in anon-liquid status, e.g., solid or gas, but is prepared as a liquid,fluid, solution or suspension containing the solid or gas samplematerial. For example, a liquid sample can encompass a liquid, fluid,solution or suspension containing a biological tissue.

A “compound” or “test compound” is any compound whose activity or director indirect effect or effects on cells is investigated in any assay. Atest compound can be any compound, including, but not limited to, asmall molecule, a large molecule, a molecular complex, an organicmolecule, an inorganic molecule, a biomolecule such as but not limitedto a lipid, a steroid, a carbohydrate, a fatty acid, an amino acid, apeptide, a protein, an antibody, a nucleic acid, or any combination ofthese. A test compound can be a synthetic compound, a naturallyoccurring compound, a derivative of a naturally-occurring compound, etc.The structure of a test compound can be known or unknown. In oneapplication of the present invention, a compound is capable of, or issuspected of, inducing cytotoxicity. In another application of presentinvention, a compound is capable of, or is suspected of, stimulatingeffector cells. In still another application, a compound is capable of,or is suspected of, interacting with cells (for example, binding to cellsurface receptor, or inhibiting certain intracellular signaltransduction pathway, or activating cells).

A “known compound” is a compound for which at least one activity isknown. In the present invention, a known compound preferably is acompound for which one or more direct or indirect effects on cells isknown. Preferably, the structure of a known compound is known, but thisneed not be the case. Preferably, the mechanism of action of a knowncompound on cells is known, for example, the effect or effects of aknown compound on cells can be, as nonlimiting examples, effects on cellviability, cell adhesion, apoptosis, cell differentiation, cellproliferation, cell morphology, cell cycle, IgE-mediated cell activationor stimulation, receptor-ligand binding, cell number, cell quality, cellcycling, etc.

An “impedance value” is the impedance measured for electrodes in a wellwith or without cell present. Impedance is generally a function of thefrequency, i.e., impedance values depend on frequencies at which themeasurement was conducted. For the present application, impedance valuerefers to impedance measured at either single frequency or multiplefrequencies. Furthermore, impedance has two components, one resistancecomponent and one reactance component. Impedance value in the presentapplication refers to resistance component, or reactance component, orboth resistance and reactance component. Thus, when “impedance value”was measured or monitored, we are referring to that, resistance, orreactance, or both resistance and reactance were measured or monitored.In many embodiments of the methods of the present application, impedancevalues also refer to parameter values that are derived from raw,measured impedance data. For example, cell index, or normalized cellindex, or delta cell index could be used to represent impedance values.

A “Cell Index” or “CI” is a parameter that can derived from measuredimpedance values and that can be used to reflect the change in impedancevalues. There are a number of methods to derive or calculate Cell Index.

A “Normalized Cell Index” at a given time point is calculated bydividing the Cell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at areference time point. Thus, the Normalized Cell Index is 1 at thereference time point.

A “delta cell index” at a given time point is calculated by subtractingthe cell index at a standard time point from the cell index at the giventime point. Thus, the delta cell index is the absolute change in thecell index from an initial time (the standard time point) to themeasurement time.

A “Cell Change Index” or “CCl” is a parameter derived from Cell Indexand “CCI” at a time point is equal to the 1^(st) order derive of theCell Index with respect to time, divided by the Cell Index at the timepoint. In other words, CCI is calculated as${{CCI}(t)} = {\frac{\mathbb{d}{{CI}(t)}}{{{CI}(t)} \cdot {\mathbb{d}t}}.}$B. Devices and Systems for Monitoring Cell-Substrate ImpedanceDevices for Measuring Cell-Substrate Impedance

The present invention includes devices for measuring cell-substrateimpedance that comprise a nonconducting substrate; two or more electrodearrays fabricated on the substrate, where each of the two or moreelectrode arrays comprises two electrode structures; and at least twoconnection pads, each of which is located on an edge of the substrate.Each electrode array of the device has approximately uniform electroderesistance across the entire array. The substrate of the device has asurface suitable for cell attachment or growth; where cell attachment orgrowth on said substrate can result in a detectable change in impedancebetween or among the electrode structures within each electrode array.

An electrode array is two or more electrode structures that areconstructed to have dimensions and spacing such that they can, whenconnected to a signal source, operate as a unit to generate anelectrical field in the region of spaces around the electrodestructures. An electrode structure refers to a single electrode,particularly one with a complex structure. (For example, an electrodestructure can comprise two or more electrode elements that areelectrically connected together.) In devices of the present invention,an electrode array comprises two electrode structures, each of whichcomprises multiple electrode elements, or substructures. In preferredembodiments of the present invention, the electrode structures of eachof the two or more electrode arrays of a device have substantially thesame surface area. In preferred embodiments of a device of the presentinvention, each of the two or more electrode arrays of a device comprisetwo electrode structures, and each electrode structure comprisesmultiple electrode elements. Each of the two electrode structures of anelectrode array is connected to a separate connection pad that islocated at the edge of the substrate.

Thus, in devices of the present invention, for each of the two or moreelectrode arrays of the device, the first of the two electrodestructures is connected to one of the two or more connection pads, andthe second of the two electrode structures is connected to another ofthe two or more connection pads. Preferably, each array of a device isindividually addressed, meaning that the electrical traces andconnection pads of the arrays are configured such that an array can beconnected to an impedance analyzer in such a way that a measuringvoltage can be applied across a single array at a given time by usingswitches (such as electronic switches).

Each electrode array of the device has an approximately uniformelectrode resistance distribution across the entire array. By “uniformresistance distribution across the array” is meant that when ameasurement voltage is applied across the electrode structures of thearray, the electrode resistance at any given location of the array isapproximately equal to the electrode resistance at any other location onthe array. Preferably, the electrode resistance at a first location onan array of the device and the electrode resistance at a second locationon the same array does not differ by more than 30%. More preferably, theelectrode resistance at a first location on an array of the device andthe electrode resistance at a second location on the same array does notdiffer by more than 15%. Even more preferably, the electrode resistanceat a first location on an array of the device and a second location onthe same array does not differ by more than 5%. More preferably yet, theelectrode resistance at a first location on an array of the device and asecond location on the same array does not differ by more than 2%.

For a device of the present invention, preferred arrangements for theelectrode elements, gaps between the electrodes and electrode buses in agiven electrode array are used to allow all cells, no matter where theyland and attach to the electrode surfaces, to contribute similarly tothe total impedance change measured for the electrode array. Thus, it isdesirable to have similar electric field strengths at any two locationswithin any given array of the device when a measurement voltage isapplied to the electrode array. At any given location of the array, thefield strength is related to the potential difference between thenearest point on a first electrode structure of the array and thenearest point on a second electrode structure of the array. It istherefore desirable to have similar electric potential drops across theelectrode elements and across the electrode buses of a given array.Based on this requirement, it is preferred to have an approximatelyuniform electrode resistance distribution across the whole array wherethe electrode resistance at a location of interest is equal to the sumof the electrode resistance between the nearest point on a firstelectrode structure (that is the point on the first electrode structurenearest the location of interest) and a first connection pad connectedto the first electrode structure and the electrode resistance betweenthe nearest point on a second electrode structure (that is the point onthe first electrode structure nearest the location of interest) and asecond connection pad connected to the second electrode structure.

Devices of the present invention are designed such that the arrays ofthe device have an approximately uniform distribution across the wholearray. This can be achieved, for example, by having electrode structuresand electrode buses of particular spacing and dimensions (lengths,widths, thicknesses and geometrical shapes) such that the resistance atany single location on the array is approximately equal to theresistance at any single other location on the array. In mostembodiments, the electrode elements (or electrode structures) of a givenarray will have even spacing and be of similar thicknesses and widths,the electrode buses of a given array will be of similar thicknesses andwidths, and the electrode traces leading from a given array to aconnection pad will be of closely similar thicknesses and widths. Thus,in these preferred embodiments, an array is designed such that thelengths and geometrical shapes of electrode elements or structures, thelengths and geometrical shapes of electrode traces, and the lengths andgeometrical shapes of buses allow for approximately uniform electroderesistance distribution across the array.

In some preferred embodiments of cell-substrate impedance measurementdevices, electrode structures comprise multiple electrode elements, andeach electrode element connects directly to an electrode bus. Electrodeelements of a first electrode structure connect to a first electrodebus, and electrode elements of a second electrode structure connect to asecond electrode bus. In these embodiments, each of the two electrodebuses connects to a separate connection pad via an electrical trace.Although the resistances of the traces contribute to the resistance at alocation on the array, for any two locations on the array the traceconnections from the first bus to a first connection pad and from thesecond bus to a second connection pad are identical. Thus, in thesepreferred embodiments trace resistances do not need to be taken intoaccount in designing the geometry of the array to provide for uniformresistances across the array.

In preferred embodiments of the present invention, a device formonitoring cell-substrate impedance has two or more electrode arraysthat share a connection pad. Preferably one of the electrode structuresof at least one of the electrode arrays of the device is connected to aconnection pad that also connects to an electrode structure of at leastone other of the electrode arrays of the device. Preferably for at leasttwo arrays of the device, each of the two or more arrays has a firstelectrode structure connected to a connection pad that connects with anelectrode structure of at least one other electrode array, and each ofthe two or more arrays has a second electrode structure that connects toa connection pad that does not connect with any other electrodestructures or arrays of the device. Thus, in preferred designs of adevice there are at least two electrode arrays each of which has a firstelectrode structure that is connected to a common connection pad and asecond electrode structure that is connected to an independentconnection pad.

In some preferred embodiments of the present invention, each of theelectrode structures of an array is connected to an electrode bus thatis connected to one of the two or more connection pads of the device viaan electrically conductive trace. In preferred embodiments, each of thetwo electrode structures is connected to a single bus, such that eacharray connects to two buses, one for each electrode structures. In thisarrangement, each of the two buses connects to a separate connection padof the substrate.

The electrically conductive traces that connect a bus with a connectioncan be fabricated of any electrically conductive material. The tracescan be localized to the surface of the substrate, and can be optionallycovered with an insulating layer. Alternatively the traces can bedisposed in a second plane of the substrate. Description of arrangementsand design of electrically conductive traces on impedance measurementdevices can be found in parent U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/705,447, herein incorporated by reference for all disclosure onfabrication and design of electrically conductive trace on substrates.

Appropriate electronic connection means such as metal clips engaged ontothe connection pads on the substrate and connectedprinted-circuit-boards can be used for leading the electronicconnections from the connection pads on the devices to externalelectronic circuitry (e.g. an impedance analyzer). Description of thedesign of cell-substrate impedance devices and their manufacture can befound in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447, hereinincorporated by reference for all description and disclosure of thedesign, features, and manufacture of impedance device comprisingelectrode arrays.

Preferably the nonconducting substrate is planar, and is flat orapproximately flat. Exemplary substrates can comprise many materials,including, but not limited to, silicon dioxide on silicon,silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer, glass (e.g., quartz glass, lead glassor borosilicate glass), sapphire, ceramics, polymer, fiber glass,plastics, e.g., polyimide (e.g. Kapton, polyimide film supplied byDuPont), polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyvinyl chloride, polyester,polypropylene and urea resin. Preferably, the substrate and the surfaceof the substrate are not going to interfere with molecular bindingreactions that will occur at the substrate surface. For cell-substrateimpedance monitoring, any surface of the nonconducting substrate thatcan be exposed to cells during the use of a device of the presentinvention is preferably biocompatible. Substrate materials that are notbiocompatible can be made biocompatible by coating with anothermaterial, such as polymer or biomolecular coating.

All or a portion of the surface of a substrate can be chemicallytreated, including but not limited to, modifying the surface such as byaddition of functional groups, or addition of charged or hydrophobicgroups.

Descriptions of electrode arrays used for impedance measurement thatapply to the devices of the present invention are described in parentU.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447, herein incorporated byreference for all disclosure relating to electrode arrays (or structuralunits), electrode structures, electrode materials, electrode dimensions,and methods of manufacturing electrodes on substrates.

Preferred electrode arrays for devices of the present invention includearrays comprising two electrode structures, such as, for example, spiralelectrode arrays and interdigitated arrays. In some preferred devices ofthe present invention, electrode arrays are fabricated on a substrate,in which the arrays comprises two electrode structures, each of whichcomprises multiple circle-on-line electrode elements, in which theelectrode elements of one structure alternate with the electrodeelements of the opposite electrode structure.

Preferably, the electrode elements (or electrode structures) of an arrayof the present device of the present invention are of approximatelyequal widths Preferably the electrode elements (or electrode structures)of an array of the present device of the present invention are greaterthan 30 microns in width, more preferably from about 50 to about 300microns in width, and more preferably yet about 90 microns in width.

Preferably, the electrode elements (or electrode structures) of an arrayof the present device of the present invention are approximately evenlyspaced. Preferably, the gap between electrode elements (or electrodestructures) of an array of the present device of the present inventionis less than 50 microns in width, more preferably from about 5 to about30 microns in width, and more preferably yet about 20 microns in width.

A device of the present invention can include one or morefluid-impermeable receptacles which serve as fluid containers. Suchreceptacles may be reversibly or irreversibly attached to or formedwithin the substrate or portions thereof (such as, for example, wellsformed as in a microtiter plate). In another example, the device of thepresent invention includes microelectrode strips reversibly orirreversibly attached to plastic housings that have openings thatcorrespond to electrode structure units located on the microelectrodestrips. Suitable fluid container materials comprise plastics, glass, orplastic coated materials such as ceramics, glass, metal, etc.Descriptions and disclosure of devices that comprise fluid containerscan be found in parent U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447,herein incorporated by reference for all disclosure of fluid containersand fluid container structures that can engage a substrate comprisingelectrodes for impedance measurements, including their dimensions,design, composition, and methods of manufacture.

In preferred embodiments, each electrode array on the substrate of adevice of the present invention is associated with a fluid-impermeablecontainer or receptacle, such as, for example, a well. Preferably, thedevice of the present invention is assembled to a bottomless, multiwellplastic plate or strip with a fluid tight seal. The device is assembledsuch that a single array of the substrate is at the bottom of areceptacle or well.

Preferably, each array of a device is associated with a well of amultiwell plate. In some preferred embodiments, a multiwell device forcell-substrate impedance measurement has “non-array” wells that areattached to the substrate but not associated with arrays. Such wells canoptionally be used for performing non-impedance based assays, or forviewing cells microscopically.

The design and assembly of multiwell impedance measurement devices isdescribed in parent U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447, andalso in parent application U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/987,732,both herein incorporated by reference for disclosure of multiwellimpedance measurement devices, including their design, composition, andmanufacture. A device of the present invention preferably has between 2and 1,536 wells, more preferably between 4 and 384 wells, and even morepreferably, between 16 and 96 wells, all or less than all or which areassociated with electrode arrays.

In some preferred embodiments, commercial tissue culture plates can beadapted to fit a device of the present invention. Bottomless plates mayalso be custom-made to preferred dimensions. Preferably, well diametersare from about 1 millimeter to about 20 millimeters, more preferablyfrom about 2 millimeters to about 8 millimeters at the bottom of thewell (the end disposed on the substrate). The wells can have a uniformdiameter or can taper toward the bottom so that the diameter of thecontainer at the end in contact with the substrate is smaller than thediameter of the opposing end.

Methods of Use

The present invention also includes methods of using a device of thepresent invention that comprises fluid containers situated overelectrode arrays to measure cell-substrate impedance. Such methodsinclude: providing a device of the present invention that comprisesfluid containers situated over electrode arrays, attaching an impedanceanalyzer to a device of the present invention, adding cells to one ormore fluid containers of the device, and measuring impedance over one ormore arrays of the device. Methods of performing cell assays usingimpedance measurement devices can be found in parent U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/987,732 and U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/705,447, both herein incorporated by reference for all disclosure ofmethods of using impedance measurement devices, as well as in Sections Dand E of the present application.

Cell-Substrate Impedance Measurement Systems

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a cell-substrateimpedance measurement system comprising a) at least one multiple-wellcell-substrate impedance measuring device, in which at least two of themultiple wells comprise an electrode array at the bottom of the well; b)an impedance analyzer electronically connected to the multiple-wellcell-substrate impedance measuring device; c) a device station capableof engaging the one or more multiple-well devices and comprisingelectronic circuitry capable of selecting and connecting electrodearrays within any of the multiple wells to the impedance analyzer; andd) a software program connected to the device station and impedanceanalyzer to control the device station and perform data acquisition anddata analysis from the impedance analyzer.

In a cell-substrate impedance measurement system of the presentinvention, the impedance analyzer engages connection pads of one or moremulti-well devices to measure impedance. In one embodiment of the abovesystem, the impedance analyzer is capable of measuring impedance between0.1 ohm and 10⁵ ohm in frequency range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz. The impedanceanalyzer is preferably capable of measuring both resistance andreactance (capacitive reactance and inductive reactance) components ofthe impedance. In a preferred embodiment of the above system, theimpedance analyzer is capable of measuring impedance between 0.1 ohm and10³ ohm in frequency range of 100 Hz to 100 kHz.

A cell-substrate measurement system can be used to efficiently andsimultaneously perform multiple assays by using circuitry of the devicestation to digitally switch from recording from measuring impedance overan array in one well to measuring impedance over an array in anotherwell. In one embodiment of the above system, the system under softwarecontrol is capable of completing an impedance measurement for anindividual well at a single frequency within less than ten seconds. Inanother embodiment, the averaged time used by the system to complete animpedance measurement for an individual well at a single frequency isless than one second.

A multiple-well cell-substrate impedance measuring device in a system ofthe present invention can be any multiple-well cell-substrate impedancemeasuring device in which at least two of the multiple wells comprise anelectrode array at the bottom of the well, and in which at least two ofthe multiple wells comprise an electrode array are individuallyaddressed. In one embodiment of the above system, the multi-well devicetakes the form of a specialized microtiter plate which hasmicroelectronic sensor arrays integrated into the bottom of the wells.

A device used in a system of the present invention, when connected to animpedance analyzer, can measure differences in impedance values thatrelate to cell behavior. For example, a cell-substrate impedancemeasuring device used in a system of the present invention can measuredifferences in impedance values when cells are attached to the electrodearray and when cells are not attached to the electrode array, or candetect differences in impedance values when the number, type, activity,adhesiveness, or morphology of cells attached to theelectrode-comprising surface of the apparatus changes.

Preferred devices that can be part of a cell-substrate impedancemonitoring system can be those described in parent U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/705,447, and in U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/987,732, both herein incorporated by reference for disclosure ofcell-substrate impedance monitoring devices that comprise electrodearrays, including disclosure of their design, composition, andmanufacture. Preferred devices that can be part of a cell-substrateimpedance monitoring system can also be those described in the presentapplication.

Preferably a multi-well device of a system of the present inventioncomprises between 4 and 1,536 wells, some or all of which can compriseelectrode arrays. In some embodiments of the present invention, a devicestation can comprise one or more platforms or one or more slots forpositioning one or more multiwell devices. The one or more platforms orone or more slots can comprise sockets, pins or other devices forelectrically connecting the device to the device station. The devicestation preferably can be positioned in a tissue culture incubatorduring cell impedance measurement assays. It can be electricallyconnected to an impedance analyzer and computer that are preferablylocated outside the tissue culture incubator.

The device station comprises electronic circuitry that can connect to animpedance monitoring device and an impedance analyzer and electronicswitches that can switch on and off connections to each of the two ormore electrode arrays of the multiwell devices used in the system. Theswitches of the device station are controlled by a software program. Thesoftware program directs the device station to connect arrays of thedevice to an impedance analyzer and monitor impedance from one or moreof the electrode arrays. During impedance monitoring, the impedanceanalyzer can monitor impedance at one frequency or at more than onefrequency. Preferably, impedance monitoring is performed at more thanone time point for a given assay, and preferably, impedance is monitoredat at least three time points. The device station can connect individualarrays of a device to an impedance analyzer to monitor one, some, or allof the arrays of a device for a measurement time point. The switches ofthe device station allow the selected individual arrays to be monitoredin rapid succession for each desired monitoring time point. Eachmonitoring time point is in fact a narrow time frame (for example fromless than one second to minutes) of measurement in the assay duringwhich impedance monitoring is performed. In some preferred embodimentsof the present invention, the device station software is programmable todirect impedance monitoring of any of the wells of the device thatcomprise arrays at chosen time intervals.

The software of the impedance monitoring system can also store anddisplay data. Data can be displayed on a screen, as printed data, orboth. Preferably the software can allow entry and display ofexperimental parameters, such as descriptive information including cellstypes, compound concentrations, time intervals monitored, etc.

Preferably, the software can also analyze impedance data. In preferredembodiments, the software can calculate a cell index (CI) for one ormore time points for one or more wells of the multiwell device. In somepreferred embodiments, the software can calculate a cell change index(CCI) from impedance measurements of one or more wells of the multiwelldevice. The software can preferably generate plots of impedance data andimpedance values, such as but not limited to CI or CCI, with respect totime. The software may perform other analysis as well, such as calculatecell number from CI, generate dose-response curves based on impedancedata, calculate IC values based on impedance values, and calculatekinetic parameters of cell growth or behavior based on impedance valuesand impedance value curves. The software of the impedance monitoringsystem can also store and display analyses of the data, such ascalculated impedance values and kinetic parameters derived therefrom,Data can be displayed on a screen, as printed data, or both.

C. Methods for Calculating Cell Index (CI) and Cell Change Index (CCI)

Cell Index

Based on the dependent relationship between the measured impedance, cellnumber (more accurately, the viable cell number, or attached cellnumber) and cell attachment status, it is possible to derive a so-called“cell number index” or “cell index” from the measured impedancefrequency spectra that provides a useful index for quantitating andcomparing cell behavior in the impedance-based assays of the presentinvention. In some applications of the present invention, “cell index”in the present application is the same as “cell number index” in PCTApplication No. PCT/US03/22557, entitled “IMPEDANCE BASED DEVICES ANDMETHODS FOR USE IN ASSAYS”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003 and in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/705,447, entitled “IMPEDANCE BASED DEVICES ANDMETHODS FOR USE IN ASSAYS,” Attorney Docket No. ACE-00101.P.1.1-US,filed on Nov. 10, 2003, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/987,732,filed Nov. 12, 2004, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447 and PCTApplication No. PCT/US03/22557 are hereby incorporated by reference forthe discussions and disclosures of cell index and cell number index theycontain.

Various methods for calculating such a cell number index can be used,some of which are novel methods disclosed herein.

The present invention provides several methods of calculating cell indexnumbers for cells attached to two or more essentially identical arraysof a cell-substrate impedance device, where the cells are monitored forimpedance changes. In preferred embodiments of the present invention,the methods calculate cell index number with better accuracy thanprevious methods of calculating cell index for cells on two or morearrays of a cell-substrate monitoring device. In some preferred methodsof the present invention, methods of calculating a cell index rely onnovel methods for calculating the resistances of electrical tracesleading to two or more essentially identical arrays. The presentinvention therefore also includes methods of calculating resistances ofelectrical traces leading to two or more essentially identical arrays ona substrate.

By “essentially identical electrode arrays” or “essentially identicalarrays” is meant that the dimensions and arrangement of electrodes,electrode structures, and electrode elements is the same for thereferenced arrays. Thus, two essentially identical electrode arrays willhave electrode structures of the same dimensions (length, width,thickness), where the electrode structures have the same number ofelectrode elements, and the arrangement of electrode structures andelectrode elements in each array are the same. By arrangement is meantthe distance between structures or elements (gap width), their physicalposition with respect to one another, and their geometry (angles, degreeof curvature, circle-on-line or castellated geometries, etc.), includingthe same features of any electrode buses that may be connected toelectrode structures or electrode elements. Electrodes of essentiallyidentical arrays also comprise the same materials. For the purposes ofcalculating trace resistances and cell index number, a substrate canhave any number of essentially identical arrays.

The following discussion provides novel methods of calculating cellindex of cells adhered to arrays of a cell-substrate impedancemonitoring device and novel methods for the calculation of theresistances of the electrical connection traces leading to two or moreelectrode arrays of a cell-substrate impedance monitoring device.

Impedance (Z) has two components, namely the resistance Rs and reactanceXs. Mathematically, the impedance Z is expressed as follows,Z=Rs+j Xs,  (2)

-   -   where ${j = \sqrt{- 1}},$        depicting that for the (serial) reactance component Xs, the        voltage applied over it is 90 degree phased-out from the current        going through it. For the (serial) resistance, the voltage        applied over it is in phase with the current going through it.        As it is well-known in electronic and electrical engineering,        the impedance can also be expressed in terms of parallel        resistance Rp and parallel reactance Xp, as follows,        Z=Rp*(j Xp)/(Rp+j Xp),  (3)        where $j = {\sqrt{- 1}.}$        Nevertheless, these expressions (serial resistance and serial        reactance, or parallel resistance and parallel reactance) are        equivalent. Those who are skilled in electrical and electronic        engineering can readily derive one form of expression from the        parameter values in the other expression. For the sake of        clarity and consistency, the description and discussion in the        present invention utilizes the expression of serial resistance        and serial reactance. For simplicity, serial resistance and        serial reactance are simply called resistance and reactance.

As described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447, entitled“Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Nov.10, 2003 and PCT application number PCT/US03/22557, entitled “Impedancebased devices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003,both of which are herein incorporated by reference for disclosuresrelating to cell-substrate impedance monitoring, monitoringcell-substrate impedance for detection or measurement of change inimpedance can be done by measuring impedance in any suitable range offrequencies. For example, the impedance can be measured in a frequencyrange from about 1 Hz to about 100 MHz. In another example, theimpedance can be measured in a frequency range from about 100 Hz toabout 2 MHz. The impedance is typically a function of the frequency,i.e., the impedance values change as frequency changes. Monitoringcell-substrate impedance can be done either in a single frequency ormultiple frequencies. If the impedance measurement is performed atmultiple frequencies, then a frequency-dependent impedance spectrum isobtained—i.e., there is an impedance value at each measured frequency.As mentioned above, the impedance has two components—a resistancecomponent and a reactance component. A change in either resistancecomponent or reactance component or both components can constitute achange in impedance.

As described in the U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447,entitled “Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays”, filedon Nov. 10, 2003 and PCT application number PCT[US03/22557, entitled“Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Jul.18, 2003, herein incorporated by reference for disclosure of methods ofmeasuring electrical impedance, the method for the measurement ofelectrical (or electronic) impedance is achieved by, (1) applying avoltage between or among said electrodes at a given frequency (ormultiple frequencies, or having specific voltage waveform) andmonitoring the electrical current through said electrodes at thefrequency (or multiple frequencies, or having specific waveform),dividing the voltage amplitude value by the current amplitude value toderive the impedance value; (2) applying an electric current of a singlefrequency component (or multiple frequencies or having specific currentwave form) through said electrodes and monitoring the voltage resultedbetween or among said electrodes at the frequency (or multiplefrequencies, or having specific waveform), dividing the voltageamplitude value by the current amplitude value to derive the impedancevalue; (3) other methods that can measure or determine electricimpedance. Note that in the description above of “dividing the voltageamplitude value by the current amplitude value to derive the impedancevalue”, the “division” is done for the values of current amplitude andvoltage amplitude at same frequencies. As it is well-known in electricaland electronic engineering, in such calculations (e.g. divisionsmentioned above), the current amplitude and voltage amplitude areexpressed in the form of complex numbers, which take into account of howbig the current and the voltage are and what the phase differencebetween the sinusoidal waves of the current and the voltage is.Similarly, the impedance value is also expressed in a complex form,having both resistance and reactance component, as shown in equationsabove.

As described in the U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447,entitled “Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays”, filedon Nov. 10, 2003 and PCT application number PCT/US03/22557, entitled“Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Jul.18, 2003, both incorporated herein by reference for disclosure relatingto Cell Index or Cell Number Index, the measured cell-substrateimpedance can be used to calculate a parameter termed Cell Index or CellNumber Index. Various methods for calculating such a cell number indexcan be used based on the changes in resistance or reactance when cellsare attached to the electrode structures with respect to the cases nocells are attached to the electrode structures. The impedance(resistance and reactance) of the electrode structures with no cellattached but with same cell culture medium over the electrode structuresis sometimes referred as baseline impedance. The baseline impedance maybe obtained by one or more of the following ways: (1) the impedancemeasured for the electrode structures with a cell-free culture mediumintroduced into the well containing the electrode structures, whereinthe culture medium is the same as that used for the impedancemeasurements for the condition where the cell attachment is monitored;(2) the impedance measured shortly (e.g. 10 minutes) after thecell-containing medium was applied to the wells comprising the electrodestructures on the well bottom (during the short period aftercell-containing medium addition, cells do not have enough time to attachto the electrode surfaces. The length of this short-period may depend oncell type and/or surface treatment or modification on the electrodesurfaces); (3) the impedance measured for the electrode structures whenall the cells in the well were killed by certain treatment (e.g.high-temperature treatment) and/or reagents (e.g. detergent) (for thismethod to be used, the treatment and/or reagents should not affect thedielectric property of the medium which is over the electrodes).

In one example (A), the cell index or cell number index can becalculated by:

-   -   (A1) at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance        ratio by dividing the resistance of the electrode arrays when        cells are present and/or attached to the electrodes by the        baseline resistance,    -   (A2) finding or determining the maximum value in the resistance        ratio over the frequency spectrum,    -   (A3) and subtracting one from the maximum value in the        resistance ratio.

Using a mathematically formula, Cell Index is derived as $\begin{matrix}{{{Cell}\quad{Index}} = {\max\limits_{{i = 1},{2\ldots\quad N}}\left( {\frac{R_{cell}\left( f_{i} \right)}{R_{b}\left( f_{i} \right)} - 1} \right)}} & (4)\end{matrix}$Where N is the number of the frequency points at which the impedance ismeasured. For example, if the frequencies used for the measurements areat 10 kHz, 25 kHz and 50 kHz, then N=3, f₁=10 kHz, f₂=25 kHz, f₃=50 kHz.R_(cell)(f_(i)) is the resistance (cell-substrate resistance) of theelectrode arrays or electrode structures when the cells are present onthe electrodes at the frequency f_(i) and R_(b)(f_(i)) is the baselineresistance of the electrode array or structures at the frequency f_(i).

The cell index obtained for a given well reflects: 1) how many cells areattached to the electrode surfaces in this well, 2) how well cells areattached to the electrode surfaces in the well._In this case, a zero ornear-zero “cell index or cell number index” indicates that no cells orvery small number of cells are present on or attached to the electrodesurfaces. In other words, if no cells are present on the electrodes, orif the cells are not well-attached onto the electrodes, R_(cell)(f_(i))is about the same as R_(b)(f_(i)), leading to Cell Index=0. A highervalue of “cell number index” indicates that, for same type of the cellsand cells under similar physiological conditions, more cells areattached to the electrode surfaces. In other words, under samephysiological conditions, more cells attached on the electrodes, thelarger the values R_(cell)(f_(i)) is, leading to a large value for CellIndex. Thus Cell Index is a quantitative measure of cell number presentin a well. A higher value of “cell index” may also indicate that, forsame type of the cells and same number of the cells, cells are attachedbetter (for example, cells spread out more, or cell adhesion to theelectrode surfaces is stronger) on the electrode surfaces.

Thus, for same number of the cells present in the well, change in a cellstatus will lead to a change in cell index. For example, an increase incell adhesion or a cell spread leading to large cell/electrode contactarea will result in an increase in R_(cell)(f) and a larger Cell Index.On the other hand, a cell death or toxicity induced cell detachment,cell rounding up, will lead to smaller R_(cell)(f) and thus smaller CellIndex.

In another example (B), the cell number index can be calculated by:

-   -   (B1) at each measured frequency, calculating the reactance ratio        by dividing the reactance of the electrode arrays when cells are        present on and/or attached to the electrodes by the baseline        reactance,    -   (B2) finding or determining the maximum value in the reactance        ratio over the frequency spectrum,    -   (B3) and subtracting one from the maximum value in the        resistance ratio.

In this case, a zero or near-zero “cell number index” indicates that nocells or very small number of cells are present on or attached to theelectrode surfaces. A higher value of “cell number index” indicatesthat, for same type of the cells and cells under similar physiologicalconditions, more cells are attached to the electrode surfaces.

In yet another example (C), the cell index can be calculated by:

-   -   (C1) at each measured frequency, subtracting the baseline        resistance from the resistance of the electrode arrays when        cells are present or attached to the electrodes to determine the        change in the resistance with the cells present relative to the        baseline resistance;    -   (C2) then finding or determining the maximum value in the change        of the resistance.

In this case, “cell-number index” is derived based on the maximum changein the resistance across the measured frequency range with the cellspresent relative to the baseline resistance. This cell index would havea dimension of ohm.

In yet another example (D), the cell index can be calculated by:

-   -   (D1) at each measured frequency, calculating the magnitude of        the impedance (equaling to $\sqrt{R_{s}^{2} + X_{s}^{2}},$        where R_(s) and X_(s) are the serial resistance and reactance,        respectively).    -   (D2) subtracting the magnitude of the baseline impedance from        the magnitude of the impedance of the electrode arrays when        cells are present or attached to the electrodes to determine the        change in the magnitude of the impedance with the cells present        relative to the baseline impedance;    -   (D3) then finding or determining the maximum value in the change        of the magnitude of the impedance.

In this case, “cell-number index” is derived based on the maximum changein the magnitude of the impedance across the measured frequency rangewith the cells present relative to the baseline impedance. This cellindex would have a dimension of ohm.

In yet another example (E), the index can be calculated by:

-   -   (E1) at each measured frequency, calculating the resistance        ratio by dividing the resistance of electrode arrays when cells        are present or attached to the electrodes by the baseline        resistance,    -   (E2) then calculating the relative change in resistance in each        measured frequency by subtracting one from the resistance ratio,    -   (E3) then integrating all the relative-change value (i.e.,        summing together all the relative-change values at different        frequencies).

In this case, “cell-number index” is derived based on multiple-frequencypoints, instead of single peak-frequency like above examples. Again, azero or near-zero “cell number index” indicates that on cells arepresent on the electrodes. A higher value of “cell number index”indicates that, for same type of the cells and cells under similarphysiological conditions, more cells are attached to the electrodes.

In yet another example (F), the cell index can be calculated by:

-   -   (F1) at each measured frequency, subtracting the baseline        resistance from the resistance of the electrode arrays when        cells are attached to the electrodes to determine the change in        the resistance with the cells present relative to the baseline        impedance; (here the change in the resistance is given by        ΔR(f_(i))=R_(s-cell)(f_(i))−R_(s-baseline)(f_(i)) for the        frequency f_(i), R_(s-cell) and R_(s-baseline) are the serial        resistances with the cells present on the electrode array and        the baseline serial resistances, respectively);    -   (F3) analyzing the frequency dependency of the change of the        resistance to derive certain parameters that can quantify such        dependency. In one example, such parameters can be calculated as        $\sqrt{\sum\limits_{i}\left\lbrack {\Delta\quad{R\left( f_{i} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}}.$        In another example, such parameter can be calculated as        $\sum\limits_{i}{{{\Delta\quad{R\left( f_{i} \right)}}}.}$        The parameter(s) are used as cell index or cell number index.

In this case, “cell-number index” is derived based on the analysis ofthe frequency spectrum of the change in the resistance. Depending howthe parameters are calculated, the cell index may have a dimension ofohm.

In yet another example (G), the cell index can be calculated by:

-   -   (G1) at each measured frequency, calculating the magnitude of        the impedance (equaling to $\sqrt{R_{s}^{2} + X_{s}^{2}},$        where R_(s) and X_(s) are the serial resistance and reactance,        respectively).    -   (G2) subtracting the magnitude of the baseline impedance from        the magnitude of the impedance of the electrode arrays when        cells are attached to the electrodes to determine the change in        the magnitude of the impedance with the cells present relative        to the baseline impedance; (here, the change in the magnitude of        the impedance is given by        ΔZ(f_(i))=|Z_(cell)(f_(i))|−|Z_(baseline)(f_(i))| for the        frequency f_(i),        ${{{Z_{cell}\left( f_{i} \right)}} = \sqrt{{R_{s - {cell}}\left( f_{i} \right)}^{2} + {X_{s - {cell}}\left( f_{i} \right)}^{2}}},$        R_(s-cell) and X_(s-cell) being the serial resistance and        reactance with the cells present on the electrode arrays,        respectively, |Z_(cell)(f_(i))| is the magnitude of the        impedance of the electrode array with cells present on the        electrode arrays, |Z_(baseline)(f_(i))| is the magnitude of the        baseline impedance of the electrode array);    -   (G3) analyzing the frequency dependency of the change of the        magnitude of the impedance to derive certain parameters that can        quantify such dependency. In one example, such parameters can be        calculated as        $\sqrt{\sum\limits_{i}\left\lbrack {\Delta\quad{Z\left( f_{i} \right)}} \right\rbrack^{2}}.$        In another example, such parameter can be calculated as        $\sum\limits_{i}{{{\Delta\quad{Z\left( f_{i} \right)}}}.}$        The parameter(s) are used as cell index or cell number index.

In this case, “cell-number index” is derived based on the analysis ofthe frequency spectrum of the change in the magnitude of the impedance.Depending how the parameters are calculated, the cell index may have adimension of ohm.

As described in the U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447,entitled “Impedance based devices and methods for use in assays”, filedon Nov. 10, 2003 and PCT application number PCT/US03/22557, entitled“Impedance-based devices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Jul.18, 2003, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/987,732, all hereinincorporated by reference for disclosure of Cell Index or Cell NumberIndex and its calculation, there are different methods for calculatingthe parameter termed Cell Index or Cell Number Index from the measuredcell-substrate impedance (resistance or reactance). Cell Index or CellNumber Index is a quantitative measure of cells in the wells undercell-substrate impedance measurement.

It is worthwhile to point out that it is not necessary to derive such a“cell number index” for utilizing the impedance information formonitoring cell conditions over the electrodes. Actually, one may chooseto directly use measured impedance (e.g., at a single fixed frequency;or at a maximum relative-change frequency, or at multiple frequencies)as an indicator of cell conditions. If measured impedance values aredirectly used for monitoring cell conditions, then resistance, orreactance or both resistance and reactance can be used.

Still, deriving “cell index” or “cell number index” and using such indexto monitor cell conditions may have advantages. There are severaladvantages of using “cell number index” to monitor cell growth and/orattachment and/or viability conditions.

First, one can compare the performance of different electrode geometriesby utilizing such cell number index.

Secondly, for a given electrode geometry, it is possible to construct“calibration curve” for depicting the relationship between the cellnumber and the cell number index by performing impedance measurementsfor different number of cells added to the electrodes (in such anexperiment, it is important to make sure that the seeded cells havewell-attached to the electrode surfaces). With such a calibration curve,when a new impedance measurement is performed, it is then possible toestimate cell number from the newly-measured cell number index.

Thirdly, cell number index can also be used to compare different surfaceconditions. For the same electrode geometry and same number of cells, asurface treatment given a larger cell number index indicates a betterattachment for the cells to the electrode surface and/or better surfacefor cell attachment.

As shown above, for some methods of calculating cell index or cellnumber index, it is important to know the impedance (resistance and/orreactance) of the electrode structures with and without cells present onthem. Based on the equation (1), the impedance of the electrode array(with or without cells present on the electrodes) is given byZ _(electrode-array) =Z _(total) −Z _(trace) −Z _(switch)  (5)

Where Z_(switch) is the impedance of electronic switch at its on stage,Z_(trace) is the impedance of the electrical connection traces (orelectrical conductive traces) on the substrate between the connectionpads and the electrode buses, Z_(total) is the total impedance measuredat the impedance analyzer. By choosing electronic switches with goodquality, it is possible to have all the electronic switches have aconsistent on-impedance (mainly resistance). For example, theon-resistance of electronic switches can be about 3 ohm (+/−10%) withthe on reactance being negligible (for example, less than 0.2 ohm in thefrequency range of interest). Thus, if the trace impedance is determinedor calculated, then formula (5) can be used to calculate the impedanceof the electrode arrays with or without cells present.

A method is invented in the present application to determine theimpedance of electrical conductive (electrical connection) traces(mainly trace resistance, trace reactance is very small for the thinconductive film trace) based on the relationships among two or moreessentially identical arrays on a cell-substrate impedance monitoringdevice. In the following, the four electrode arrays A, B, C and D asindicated in FIG. 1, are used to illustrate this method. The electricalreactance (serial reactance) of the electronic switches and theelectrical reactance (serial reactance) of the electrical connectiontraces are small as compared with the corresponding electricalresistances (serial resistances). Thus, we focus on the analysis of theresistance of the electrical connection traces. The impedance determinedfrom the impedance analyzer does contain both resistance (serialresistance, R_(total)) and reactance (serial reactance). For theelectrode arrays A-D, the measured total resistance R_(total), theresistance (R_(trace)) of electrical conductive (connection) trace, theswitch resistance (R_(switch)) and the resistance (R_(e-array)) of theelectrode array satisfy the following equations:R _(e-array-A) =R _(total-A) −R _(trace-A) −R _(switch-A)  (6A)R _(e-array-B) =R _(total-B) −R _(trace-B) −R _(switch-B)  (6B)R _(e-array-C) =R _(total-C) −R _(trace-C) −R _(switch-C)  (6C)R _(e-array-D) =R _(total-D) −R _(trace-D) −R _(switch-D)  (6D)With chosen electronic switches having consistent switch-on resistance,R_(switch-A), R_(switch-B), R_(switch-C) and R_(switch-D) have verysimilar values and can be assumed to be the same, R_(switch). Thus, inabove equations, the known parameters are R_(total-A), R_(total-B),R_(total-C), and R_(total-D), and R_(switch-A), R_(switch-B),R_(switch-C) and R_(switch-D), and there are eight unknown parametersR_(e-array-A), R_(e-array-B), R_(e-array-C), and R_(e-array-D), andR_(trace-A), R_(trace-B), R_(trace-C) and R_(trace-D). It is impossibleto solve these equations for the eight unknown variables from these fourequations directly. Additional relationships between these variables areneeded to solve for them. Each trace resistance (R_(trace A),R_(trace-B), R_(trace-C) and R_(trace-D)) depends on the metal film typeused, and the geometry of the trace such as the how many rectangularsegments the trace has, the film thickness(es) of the segments, thewidth(s) of the segments, the length(s) of the segment(s). For example,$\begin{matrix}{R_{{trace} - A} = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}{\rho\quad\frac{L_{A - i}}{t_{A - i}*d_{A - i}}}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$where N is the number of the segments of the trace-A, t_(A-i), d_(A-i)and L_(A-i) is the thickness, width and length of the i-th segment ofthe traces for the electrode array A, and p is the resistivity of thethin film. The equation here applies to the film comprising a singletype of metal. The equation can be readily modified to be applicable tothe film comprising two or more metal types (e.g. gold film overchromium adhesion layer).

If the film thickness is reasonably uniform (for example, less than 10%in thickness variation) across the substrate, then the relationshipamong the trace resistances is simply determined by the pre-determinedgeometrical shapes (e.g. the length, width of the segments). Forexample, it would be straightforward to calculate the ratio α_(A-D)between the resistance of the electrically conductive traces for theelectrode array A to the resistance of the electrically conductivetraces for the electrode array D as below, where the film thickness isassumed to be the same everywhere on these traces and the resistivity isalso the same everywhere on these traces, $\begin{matrix}{\alpha_{A - D} = {\frac{R_{trace\_ A}}{R_{trace\_ D}} = {\frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}{\rho\quad\frac{L_{A - i}}{t_{A - i}*d_{A - i}}}}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{M}{\rho\quad\frac{L_{D - i}}{t_{D - i}*d_{D - i}}}} = {\frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}\frac{L_{A - i}}{d_{A - i}}}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{M}\frac{L_{D - i}}{d_{D - i}}}.}}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

Similarly, one can determine the ratio α_(B-D) and α_(C-D) based on thepre-determined geometrical relationships for the traces of the electrodearrays B, C and D. Note that above equations can be similarly derivedfor the cases where the thin film in these traces comprises more thanone metal type. Thus, based on the equalitiesR_(switch-A)=R_(switch-B)=R_(switch-C)=R_(switch-D)=R_(switch),  (9A)R _(trace-A)=α_(A-D) ·R _(trace-D),  (9B)R _(trace-B)=α_(B-D) ·R _(trace-D),  (9C)and R _(trace-C)=α_(C-D) ·Rtrace-D  (9D)equations (6A)-(6D) can be re-written in the following format:R _(e-array-A) =R _(total-A)−α_(A-D) ·R _(trace-D) −R _(switch)  (10A)R _(e-array-B) =R _(total-B)−α_(B-D) ·R _(trace-D) −R _(switch)  (10B)R _(e-array-C) =R _(total-C)−α_(C-D) ·R _(trace-D) ·R _(switch)  (10C)R _(e-array-D) =R _(total-D) ·R _(trace-D) −R _(switch-D)  (10D)For equations (10A) through (10D), there are five unknown variables,R_(e-array-A), R_(e-array-B), R_(e-array-C), and R_(e-array-D) andR_(trace-D). Mathematically, these unknown variables cannot bedetermined from these equations. Additional information is needed tosolve for these variables R_(e-array-A), R_(e-array-B), R_(e-array-C),and R_(e-array-D) and R_(trace-D).

One approach is invented and described in the present invention. In thisapproach, same biological or chemical solutions or suspensions areapplied to the electrode-arrays A through D. Because the electrodearrays A through D have essentially identical electrode structures, theelectrode array resistances R_(e-array-A), R_(e-array-B), R_(e-array-C)and R_(e-array-D) should be of same, or very similar value for such acondition when all the electrode arrays are exposed to the samebiological or chemical solutions or suspensions, i.e.:R_(e-array-A)≈R_(e-array-B)≈R_(e-array-C)≈R_(e-array-D). If we assumethe averaged electrode array resistance is R_(e-array), then theseapproximate relationship existsR_(e-array-A)≈R_(e-array-B)≈R_(e-array-C)≈R_(e-array-D)≈R_(e-array).Thus, equations (10A-10D) can be changed to the following:R_(e-array)≈R_(total-A)−α_(A-D)·R_(trace-D)−R_(switch)  (11A)R_(e-array)≈R_(total-B)−α_(B-D)·R_(trace-D)−R_(switch)  (11B)R_(e-array)≈R_(total-C)−α_(C-D)·R_(trace-D)−R_(switch)  (11C)R_(e-array)≈R_(total-D)−R_(trace-D)−R_(switch-D)  (b 11D)

Thus, we would need to find R_(trace-D) and R_(e-array) that satisfy theabove approximate equality as close as possible. One mathematicalapproach is to find R_(trace-D) and R_(e-array) that would result in theminimum value for the following expression—an expression that quantifiesthe differences between the two sides of the approximate equality in(11A, 11B, 11C and 11D), $\begin{matrix}{{F\left( {R_{{trace} - D},R_{e - {array}}} \right)} = {\left\lbrack {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - A} - {\alpha_{A - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rbrack^{2} + \left\lbrack {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - B} - {\alpha_{B - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rbrack^{2} + \left\lbrack {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - C} - {\alpha_{C - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rbrack^{2} + \left\lbrack {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - D} - R_{{trace} - D} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rbrack^{2}}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

The expression F(R_(trace-D), R_(e-array)) is the sum of thesquared-differences between the two-sides of the approximate equality in(11A, 11B, 11C and 11D). The smaller F(R_(trace-D), R_(e-array)), thecloser the two sides of the approximate equality (11A, 11B, 11C and11D). Thus, values of R_(trace-D) and R_(e-array) that result in theminimum value of F(R_(trace-D), R_(e-array)) should be determined.Mathematical approach involves in the calculation of the first orderderivative of F(R_(trace-D), R_(e-array)) to R_(trace-D) and toR_(e-array) and let such first order derivatives equal to zero. Thevalues of R_(trace-D) and R_(e-array) that result in zero for thesefirst-order-derivatives are those that result in the minimum value ofF(R_(trace-D), R_(e-array)). The first order derivatives are as follows:$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\partial\left\lfloor {F\left( {R_{{trace} - D},R_{e - {array}}} \right)} \right\rfloor}{\partial R_{{trace} - D}} = {{{2 \cdot \alpha_{A - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - A} - {\alpha_{A - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {2 \cdot \alpha_{B - D} \cdot \left\lfloor {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - B} - {\alpha_{B - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rfloor} + {2 \cdot \alpha_{C - D} \cdot \left\lfloor {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - C} - {\alpha_{C - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rfloor} + {2 \cdot \left\lfloor {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - D} - R_{{trace} - D} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rfloor}} = 0}};} & \left( {13A} \right) \\{\frac{\partial\left\lfloor {F\left( {R_{{trace} - D},R_{e - {array}}} \right)} \right\rfloor}{\partial R_{e - {array}}} = {{{2 \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - A} - {\alpha_{A - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {2 \cdot \left\lfloor {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - B} - {\alpha_{B - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rfloor} + {2 \cdot \left\lfloor {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - C} - {\alpha_{C - D}R_{{trace} - D}} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rfloor} + {2 \cdot \left\lfloor {R_{e - {array}} - \left( {R_{{total} - D} - R_{{trace} - D} - R_{switch}} \right)} \right\rfloor}} = 0.}} & \left( {13B} \right)\end{matrix}$

Equations (13A) and (13B) can be re-written as $\begin{matrix}{{{R_{e - {array}} \cdot \left\lbrack {\alpha_{A - D} + \alpha_{B - D} + \alpha_{C - D} + 1} \right\rbrack} + {R_{{trace} - D} \cdot \left\lfloor {\alpha_{A - D}^{2} + \alpha_{B - D}^{2} + \alpha_{C - D}^{2} + 1} \right\rfloor}} = {\quad{\alpha_{A - D} \cdot {\quad{\left\lbrack {R_{{total} - A} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack + {\alpha_{B - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - B} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack} + {\alpha_{C - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - C} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack} + \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - D} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack}}}}} & \left( {14A} \right) \\{{{4 \cdot R_{e - {array}}} + {R_{{trace} - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {\alpha_{A - D} + \alpha_{B - D} + \alpha_{C - D} + 1} \right\rbrack}} = {\quad{\left\lbrack {R_{{total} - A} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack + \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - B} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack + {\quad{\left\lbrack {R_{{total} - C} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack + \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - D} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack}}}}} & \left( {14B} \right)\end{matrix}$

Thus, we can solve for R_(trace-D) as follows: $\begin{matrix}{{R_{{trace} - D} = {\frac{{4 \cdot S_{1}} - {A_{11} \cdot S_{2}}}{{4 \cdot A_{12}} - {A_{11} \cdot B_{12}}}\quad{where}}}\begin{matrix}{{A_{11} = \left\lbrack {\alpha_{A - D} + \alpha_{B - D} + \alpha_{C - D} + 1} \right\rbrack};} \\{{A_{12} = \left\lfloor {\alpha_{A - D}^{2} + \alpha_{B - D}^{2} + \alpha_{C - D}^{2} + 1} \right\rfloor};} \\{S_{1} = {{\alpha_{A - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - A} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack} + {\alpha_{B - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - B} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack} +}} \\{{{\alpha_{C - D} \cdot \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - C} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack} + \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - D} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack};} \\{{B_{12} = \left\lbrack {\alpha_{A - D} + \alpha_{B - D} + \alpha_{C - D} + 1} \right\rbrack};} \\{S_{2} = {\left\lbrack {R_{{total} - A} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack + \left\lbrack {R_{{total} - B} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack +}} \\{\left\lbrack {R_{{total} - C} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack + {\left\lbrack {R_{{total} - D} - R_{switch}} \right\rbrack.}}\end{matrix}} & (15)\end{matrix}$

Thus, with the determined R_(trace-D), the trace resistances ofR_(trace-A), R_(trace-B), and R_(trace-C) can be calculated usingequations (9B), (9C) and (9D). Furthermore, the electrode arrayresistance R_(e-array-A), R_(e-array-B), R_(e-array-C) and R_(e-array-D)can be calculated from the measured resistance R_(total-A), R_(total-B),R_(total-C) and R_(total-D) respectively using equations (10A), (10B),(10C) and (10D).

Thus, one aspect of the present invention is directed to a method ofcalculation of the resistances of the electrical connection traces sfrom the measured, total resistances for two or more essentiallyidentical electrode arrays (such as, for example arrays A-D in FIG. 1),comprising the following steps:

-   -   (1) exposing the electrode arrays to the solutions having same        or similar solutions or suspensions;    -   (2) with an impedance analyzer or impedance measurement circuit,        measuring the resistance (serial resistance) for each electrode        array, such resistance being the sum of the resistance of        electronic switches, the resistance of the electrical connection        traces between the connection pads and the electrode structures        (for example, between the connection pads and the electrode        buses, for the electrode structures in FIG. 1), and the        resistance of the electrode array with the solutions or        suspensions present;    -   (3) solving for the resistances of electrical connection traces        using equation (15) and equations (9B), (9C) and (9D), noting in        the calculation with equation (15), the geometrical        relationships between the electrode arrays are used to determine        the factor α_(A-D), α_(B-D) and α_(C-D).

Another aspect of the present invention is directed to a method ofcalculating the resistance of the electrode arrays from the measured,total electrode resistances for two ro more essentially identicalelectrode arrays (such as, for example arrays A-D in FIG. 1) if the sameor similar solutions or suspensions are added to be in contact with theelectrode assays, comprising the following steps:

-   -   (1) exposing the electrode arrays to the solutions having same        or similar solutions or suspensions;    -   (2) with an impedance analyzer or impedance measurement circuit,        measuring the resistance (serial resistance) for each electrode        array, such resistance being the sum of the resistance of        electronic switches, the resistance of the electrical connection        traces between the connection pads and the electrode structures        (for example, between the connection pads and the electrode        buses, for the electrode structures in FIG. 1) and the        resistance of the electrode arrays with the solutions or        suspensions present;    -   (3) solving for the resistances of electrical connection traces        using equation (15) and equations (9B), (9C) and (9D), noting in        the calculation with equation (15), the geometrical        relationships between the electrode arrays are used to determine        the factor α_(A-D), α_(B-D) and α_(C-D);    -   (4) calculating the resistances of the electrode arrays using        equations (10A, 10B, 10C and 10D)).

In many applications, the solutions or suspensions (for example, cellsuspension) applied to each electrode array may have differentcompositions. For example, cell suspensions of different cell numbersmay be used so that the suspensions applied to each electrode array arequite different. Under such cases, the determination of the resistanceof the electrode arrays with the cells-present-would require thedetermination of the resistance of the electrical connection traces byperforming a “reference run” or “calibration run” in which the electrodearrays are exposed to a same, reference solution. From the “referencerun”, the resistances of the electrical connection traces can bedetermined. In a separate test, the electrode arrays are exposed to thesolutions or cell suspensions of interest and the resistances for theelectrode arrays under such conditions are measured with an impedanceanalyzer or impedance measuring circuit. The resistance of the electrodearrays with such cell suspensions present can be determined (orcontinuously determined) from the measured resistance by subtracting thesum of the resistance of the electronic switches and the resistance ofthe electrical connection traces for corresponding electrode arrays fromthe measured resistances.

Thus, another aspect of the present invention is directed to a method ofcalculating the resistance of the electrode arrays from the totalelectrical resistances measured at an impedance analyzer for essentiallyidentical electrode arrays (such as electrode arrays A-D in FIG. 1 usedas an example) if different solutions or suspensions of interest areapplied to the electrode assays, comprising the following steps:

-   -   (1) exposing the electrode arrays to the solutions having same        or similar solutions or suspensions (reference solutions);    -   (2) with an impedance analyzer or impedance measurement circuit,        measuring the resistance (serial resistance) for each electrode        array, such resistance being the sum of the resistance of        electronic switches, the resistance of the electrical connection        traces between the connection pads and the electrode structures        (for example, between the connection pads and the electrode        buses, for the electrode structures in FIG. 1) and the        resistance of the electrode arrays with the reference solutions        present;    -   (3) solving for the resistances of electrical connection traces        using equation (15) and equations (9B), (9C) and (9D), noting in        the calculation with equation (15), the geometrical        relationships between the electrode arrays of FIG. 1 are used to        determine the factor α_(A-D), α_(B-D) and α_(C-D);    -   (4) applying the solutions or suspensions of interest to each        electrode array; and    -   with an impedance analyzer or impedance measurement circuit,        measuring the resistance (serial resistance) of each electrode        array, such resistance being the sum of the resistance of        electronic switches, the resistance of the electrical connection        traces between the connection pads and the electrode structures,        the resistance of the electrode arrays with the solutions or        suspensions of the interest present,    -   (5) Calculating the resistance of the electrode arrays using        equations (10A), (10B), (10C) and (10D) by subtracting the        electronic switch resistances and the resistances of electrical        connection traces from the measured resistances in the step (4).

Note that in above method, the steps of exposing the electrode arrays toreference solutions for the determination of the resistances ofelectrically conductive traces (step (1), (2) and (3)) may be performedbefore or after the steps of applying the solutions or suspensions ofinterest to the electrode arrays and measuring the total electricalresistance (step (4)). For example, step (4) may be performed first.After that, the solutions or suspensions of the interest may be removedfrom the electrode array. The reference solutions can then be added tothe electrode arrays (step (1)). Step (2) and step (3) can be thenperformed to determine the resistances of electrical connection traces.Finally, Step (5) can be done.

In another approach, step-(1) and (2) can be performed ahead of step(4).

Another aspect of the present invention is directed to a method ofdetermining the resistance of the electrode arrays with the cellspresent for a cell-based assay based on the total electrical resistancemeasured at an impedance analyzer for essentially identical electrodearrays. In this method, the electrode arrays are exposed to a same,reference solution (for example, a same cell culture medium that doesnot contain any cells) and electrical measurement is conducted todetermine the resistance of electrical connection traces. With theresistances of the electrical connection traces determined, electricalresistances of the electrode arrays with cell suspensions added toelectrode arrays can be calculated from the total electrical resistancesmeasured at an impedance analyzer. Such total electrical resistancewould include the resistance of the electrode arrays with cells present,the resistance of electronic switches and the resistance of electricalconnection traces. The method comprises following steps

-   -   (1) exposing the electrode arrays to the solutions having same        or similar solutions or suspensions (reference solutions);    -   (2) with an impedance analyzer or impedance measurement circuit,        measuring the resistance (serial resistance) for each electrode        array, such resistance being the sum of the resistance of        electronic switches, the resistance of the electrical connection        traces between the connection pads and the electrode structures        (for example, between the connection pads and the electrode        buses, for the electrode structures in FIG. 1) and the        resistance of the electrode arrays with the reference solutions        present;    -   (3) solving for the resistances of electrical connection traces        using equation (15) and equations (9B), (9C) and (9D), noting in        the calculation with equation (15), the geometrical        relationships between the electrode arrays in FIG. 1 are used to        determine the factor α_(A-D), α_(B-D) and α_(C-D);    -   (4) applying the cell suspensions of interest to each electrode        array, and with an impedance analyzer or impedance measurement        circuit, measuring the resistance (serial resistance) of each        electrode array, such resistance being the sum of the resistance        of electronic switches, the resistance of the electrical        connection traces between the connection pads and the electrode        structures, the resistance of the electrode arrays with the cell        suspensions of the interest present,    -   (5) Calculating the resistance of the electrode arrays using        equations (10A), (10B), (10C) and (10D) by subtracting the        electronic switch resistances and the resistances of electrical        connection traces from the measured resistances in step (4).

Note that in above method, the steps of exposing the electrode arrays toreference solution for the determination of the electrical resistance ofelectrically conductive traces (step (1), (2) and (3)) may be performedbefore or after the steps of applying the solutions of interest or cellsuspensions of interest to the electrode arrays and measuring the totalelectrical resistance (step (4)). For example, step (4) may be performedfirst, followed by steps (1) and (2). In one approach, after step (4),the cell suspensions of the interest may be removed from the electrodearray. Then reference solutions can be added to the electrode arrays. Inanother approach, after step (4), the cells are all lysed with some celllysis solutions so that the electrodes are exposed to the same,reference solutions for the measurement and calculation of step (2) and(3). And then, step (5) is performed to determine the electricalresistance of electrode arrays with the cell suspensions of interestpresent.

The determination of the resistances of the electrical conductive tracesfor the electrode arrays that essentially identical electrode arrays maybe, or may not be, part of the monitoring of cell-substrate impedancefor cell-based assays. It depends on how the impedance data (measured ata single frequency or multiple frequencies, measured at multiple timepoints) of the electrode arrays is analyzed.

In some assays, one is interested in the relative change in theresistance or impedance of the electrode arrays with the cells presentrelative to the baseline resistance or impedance. For such cases, it ispreferred to determine the resistance (or impedance) of the electrodearrays from the total, measures resistance (or impedance) by subtractingthe resistance of the electrical conductive traces and the resistance ofelectronic switches. Thus, determination of the resistances or impedanceof the electrically conductive traces may be required.

In some other assays, one is interested in the absolute changes in theresistance (or impedance) of the electrode arrays with cells presentrelative to the baseline resistance (or impedance). In these cases, onecan directly subtract the measured resistance or impedance for thebaseline condition from the measured resistance or impedance for thecondition that the cells are present on the electrode arrays. Thecontribution of the resistance (or impedance) of the electronic switchesand the resistance (or impedance) of the electrically conductive tracesto the total measured resistance (or impedance) values is cancelled outin such subtractions. Thus, there is no need for determining theresistances of the electrically conductive traces.

In some assays, one is interested in calculating the Cell Index or CellNumber Index based on the monitored impedance values. Depending on whichmethod is used for calculating the Cell Index, it may, or may not, benecessary to determine the resistances of the electrically conductivetraces. For example, for the Cell Index calculation method (A) describedabove, the resistances of the electrically conductive traces are needed,in order to remove the effect of the resistance of the electricallyconductive traces on the analysis of the relative change of theresistance or impedance. In another example, for the Cell Indexcalculation method (F) described above, there is no need to determinethe resistances of the electrically conductive traces since the effectof the resistance of the electrically conductive traces is canceled outin the calculations.

The monitoring of the cell-substrate impedance may be or may not bebased on the change with respect to the baseline impedance (orresistance). For example, a cell-based assay is performed to assess theeffect of a test compound on the cells. One method in performing such anassay is by monitoring of the cell-substrate impedance and determiningthe change in the cell-substrate impedance before and after the additionof the test compound to the cells. The monitoring of cell-substrateimpedance can be performed at a single frequency point or multiplefrequency points, at a single time point or multiple time points afterdrug addition. For example, the impedance is first measured at a singlefrequency or multiple frequencies for the electrode arrays with thecells present just before addition of test compound. The test compoundis then added to the cells. The impedance is then measured again at thesame single frequency or multiple frequencies for the electrode arrayswith the cells after the addition of test compound. Such post-compoundaddition measurement may be performed for many time points continuouslyin a regular or irregular time intervals. The change in thecell-substrate impedances can be determined or quantified by subtractingthe impedance(s) (resistance and/or reactance) measured before additionof the test compound from the impedance(s) (resistance and/or reactance)measured after addition of the test compound. If the measurement is doneat multiple frequencies, a single parameter or multiple parameters maybe further derived for each time point after compound addition based onthe calculated change in the cell-substrate impedances. Such parametersare used to quantify the cell changes after compound addition. Suchapproaches can be used further to analyze the responses of the cells toa test compound at multiple concentrations to derive dose-dependentresponse curves.

Normalized Cell Index, Delta Cell Index

A “Normalized Cell Index” at a given time point is calculated bydividing the Cell Index at the time point by the Cell Index at areference time point. Thus, the Normalized Cell Index is 1 at thereference time point. Normalized cell index is cell index normalizedagainst cell index at a particular time point. In most cases in thepresent applications, normalized cell index is derived as normalizedrelative to the time point immediately before a compound addition ortreatment. Thus, normalized cell index at such time point (immediatelybefore compound addition) is always unit one for all wells. One possiblebenefit for using such normalized cell index is to remove the effectfrom difference in cell number in different wells. A well having morecells may produce a larger impedance response following compoundtreatment. Using normalized cell index, it helps to remove suchvariations caused by different cell numbers.

A “delta cell index” at a given time point is calculated by subtractingthe cell index at a standard time point from the cell index at the giventime point. Thus, the delta cell index is the absolute change in thecell index from an initial time (the standard time point) to themeasurement time.

Cell Change Index

The time-dependent cellular response (including cytotoxicity response)may be analyzed by deriving parameters that directly reflect the changesin cell status. For example, time dependent celluler response may beanalyzed by calculating the slope of change in the measured impedanceresponses (that is equivalent to the first order derivative of theimpedance response with respect to time, impedance response here can bemeasured impedance data or derived values such as cell index, normalizedcell index or delta cell index). In another example, the time-dependentcellular responses (including cytotoxicresposnes) responses may beanalyzed for their higher order derivatives with respect to time. Suchhigh order derivatives may provide additional information as for howcells responding to different compounds and as for the mechanisms ofcompound action.

As an example, we describe how one can to derive a parameter, calledCell Change Index, based on the real time, quantitative information(i.e., cell index, CI) about biological status of cells in the wellsprovided from RT-CES system. This new parameter, Cell Change Index(CCI), can effectively link time dependent cell index I with cellstatus, is calculated as, $\begin{matrix}{{{CCI}(t)} = {\frac{\mathbb{d}{{CI}(t)}}{{{CI}(t)} \cdot {\mathbb{d}t}}.}} & (5)\end{matrix}$Thus CCI is the normalized rate of change in cell index. CCI values canbe used to quantify the cell status change. For cells in an exponentialgrowth under regular cell culture condition, the cell index determinedby a cell-substrate impedance monitoring system described herein isexpected to be a proportionate measure of the cell number in the wellsince the cell morphology and average extent of cell adhesion to theelectrode surfaces among the whole cell population do not exhibitsignificant changes over time. Thus, the cell index (CI) increase withtime following an exponential function, such that $\begin{matrix}{{{CI}(t)} = {{{CI}(0)}*2^{\frac{t}{DT}}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$where DT is the cell doubling time. For such exponential growth culture,CCI(t) is a constant, giving $\begin{matrix}{{{CCI}(t)} = {\frac{0.693}{DT} \approx {\frac{0.7}{DT}.}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

Thus, several types of CCI(t) can be classified as:

-   -   (1) If CCI is about 0.7/DT, cell index increases in the same        rate as that expected for an exponential growth of the cells.    -   (2) If CCI >>0.7/DT, cell index increases faster than that        expected for an exponential growth (or log growth) of the cells.        This indicates that cells may grow faster than regular        exponential growth, or cells may exhibit some morphology change        (e.g. cell spreading out or adhering better to the electrode        surfaces), leading to large impedance signal, or both of above        effects, or there may be other cell behaviors occurring        particular to the assay or culture conditions.    -   (3) If CCI is more than zero but somewhat smaller than 0.7/DT,        then cell index increases in the rate slowed than that expected        for an exponential growth. This indicates that cell growth rate        may be slowed down relative to exponential growth, or cell        growth may be somewhat inhibited by chemical compounds added to        the culture media or by other cell culture parameters, or that        certain populations of cells are dying off and detaching from        the electrode surfaces, or there may be other cell behaviors        occurring particular to the assay or culture conditions.    -   (4) If CCI is about zero, then cell index shows a near constant        value. This may indicate that the cell growth is        nearly-completely inhibited. For example, all the cells are        arrested at certain points of cell cycle and are not progressing        further. Or, this may indicate that the number of cells dying        off in the culture is nearly as the number of newly-divided        cells. Alternatively this may indicate that cells reach        stationary phase of cell culture. Alternatively this may        indicate that number of cells are above the detection upper        limit of the cell-substrate impedance monitoring system. There        is also the possibility of other cell behaviors occurring        particular to the assay or culture conditions.    -   (5) If CCI is negative, then the cell index is decreasing with        time, showing the cells losing attachment to the electrode        surface or changing their morphology.    -   (6) If CCI is very negative, then the cell index decreases        rapidly with time, showing that either cells lose attachment to        the electrode surfaces quickly or cells change their morphology        very quickly.        D. Methods for Performing Real-Time Cell-Based Assays

The present invention provide cell-based assays that can be performed inreal time to assess cell proliferation, cell growth, cell death, cellmorphology, cell membrane properties (for example, size, morphology, orcomposition of the cell membrane) cell adhesion, and cell motility. Thusthe assays can be cytotoxicity assays, proliferation assays, apoptosisassays, cell adhesion assays, cell activation or stimulation assays,anti-cancer compound efficacy assays, receptor-ligand binding or signaltransduction analysis, assays of cytoskeletal changes, assays of cellstructural changes (including but not limited to, changes in cellmembrane size, morphology, or composition), cell quantification, cellquality control, time-dependent cytotoxicity profiling, assays of celldifferentiation or de-differentiation, detection or quantitation ofneutralizing antibodies, specific T-cell mediated cytotoxic effectassays, assays of cell adhesivity, assays of cell-cell interactions,analysis of microbial, viral, or environmental toxins, etc.

The assays are real-time assays in the sense that cell behavior or cellstatus being assayed can be assessed continuously at regular orirregular intervals. Cell behaviors, cell responses, or cell status canbe assayed and the results recorded or displayed within seconds tominutes of their occurrence. The cell response during an assay can bemonitored essentially continuously over a selected time period. Forexample, a culture can be monitored every five to fifteen minutes forseveral hours to several days after addition of a reagent. The intervalbetween impedance monitoring, whether impedance monitoring is performedat regular or irregular intervals, and the duration of the impedancemonitoring assay can be determined by the experimenter.

Thus, the cell-based impedance assays of the present invention avoidinadvertently biased or misleading evaluation of cell responses due tothe time point or time points chosen for sampling or assaying the cells.In addition, the assays do not require sampling of cell cultures oraddition of reagents and thus eliminate the inconvenience, delay inobtaining results, and error introduced by many assays.

Descriptions of cell-substrate monitoring and associated devices,systems and methods of use have been provided in U.S. provisionalapplication No. 60/379,749, filed on Jul. 20, 2002; U.S. provisionalapplication No. 60/435,400, filed on Dec. 20, 2002; U.S. Provisionalapplication 60/469,572, filed on May 9, 2003, PCT application numberPCT/US03/22557, entitled “Impedance based devices and methods for use inassays”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003; PCT application number PCT/US03/22537,entitled “Impedance based apparatuses and methods for analyzing cellsand particles”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003; U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/705,447, entitled “Impedance based devices and methods for use inassays”, filed on Nov. 10, 2003; U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/987,732 U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,615, entitled“Impedance based apparatuses and methods for analyzing cells andparticles”, filed on Nov. 10, 2003, all incorporated herein by referencefor their disclosure of cell-substrate impedance devices, systems, andmethods of use. Additional details of cell-substrate impedancemonitoring technology is further disclosed in the present invention.

In brief, for measurement of cell-substrate or cell-electrode impedanceusing the technology of the present invention, cell-substrate impedancemonitoring devices are used that have microelectrode arrays withappropriate geometries fabricated onto the bottom surfaces of wells suchas microtiter plate wells, or have a similar design of having multiplefluid containers (such as wells) having electrodes fabricated on theirbottom surfaces facing into the fluid containers. Cells are introducedinto the fluid containers of the devices, and make contact with andattach to the electrode surfaces. The presence, absence or change ofproperties of cells affects the electronic and ionic passage on theelectrode sensor surfaces. Measuring the impedance between or amongelectrodes provides important information about biological status ofcells present on the sensors. When there are changes to the biologicalstatus of the cells analogue electronic readout signals can be measuredautomatically and in real time, and can be converted to digital signalsfor processing and for analysis.

Preferably, cell-substrate impedance assays are performed using a systemof the present invention that comprises a device of the presentinvention, an impedance monitor, a device station that compriseselectronic circuitry and engages the device and the impedance analyzer,and a software program that controls the device station and records andanalyzes impedance data.

Using a system of the present invention, a cell index can optionally beautomatically derived and provided based on measured electrode impedancevalues. The cell index obtained for a given well reflects: 1) how manycells are attached to the electrode surfaces in this well, and 2) howwell (tightly or extensively) cells are attached to the electrodesurfaces in this well. Thus, the more the cells of same type in similarphysiological conditions attach the electrode surfaces, the larger thecell index. And, the better the cells attach to the electrode surfaces(e.g., the cells spread-out more to have larger contact areas, or thecells attach tighter to electrode surfaces), the larger the cell index.

In one aspect of the present invention, a method is provided forperforming cell-based assays, comprising: a) providing a cell-substrateimpedance monitoring device of the present invention that comprises twoor more electrode arrays, each of which is associated with a fluidcontainer of the device; b) attaching the device to an impedancemonitor; c) introducing cells into one or more fluid containers of thedevice; and d) monitoring cell-substrate impedance of at least one ofthe fluid containers that comprises an electrode array and cells.Preferably, impedance is monitored from the at least one fluid containerto obtain impedance measurements at at least three time points.Preferably, impedance measurements or impedance values derived fromimpedance measurements from at least three time points are plottedversus time to generate one or more impedance curves for the one or morefluid containers.

In a related aspect of the present invention, a method is provided forperforming cell-based assays in an impedance-monitoring system,comprising: a) providing a cell-substrate impedance monitoring system ofthe present invention that comprises a device having two or moreelectrode arrays, each of which is associated with a well of the device;b) introducing cells into one or more wells of the device; and c)monitoring cell-substrate impedance of at least one of the wells thatcomprises an electrode array and cells. Preferably, impedance ismonitored from the one or more wells of the device to obtain impedancemeasurements at at least three time points. Preferably, impedancemeasurements or impedance values derived from impedance measurementsfrom at least three time points are plotted versus time to generate oneor more impedance curves for the one or more wells.

The method can be used to assay cell status, where cell status includes,but is not limited to, cell attachment or adhesion status (e.g. thedegree of cell spread, the attachment area of a cell, the degree oftightness of cell attachment, cell morphology) on the substrateincluding on the electrodes, cell growth or proliferation status; numberof viable cells and/or dead cells in the well; cytoskeleton change andre-organization and number of cells going through apoptosis and/ornecrosis. The cell-based assays that be performed with above methodsinclude, but are not limited to, cell adhesion, cell apoptosis, celldifferentiation, cell proliferation, cell survival, cytotoxicity, cellmorphology detection, cell quantification, cell quality control,time-dependent cytotoxicity profiling, IgE-mediated cell activation orstimulation, receptor-ligand binding, viral and bacterial toxin mediatedcell pathologic changes and cell death, detection and quantification ofneutralizing antibodies, specific T-cell mediated cytotoxic effect, andcell-based assays for screening and measuring ligand-receptor binding.

In preferred embodiments of this aspect of the present invention, cellsare added to at least two fluid containers of a device, each of whichcomprises an electrode array, and impedance is monitored from at leasttwo wells that comprise cells and an electrode array.

The cells used in the assay can be primary cells isolated from anyspecies or cells of cell lines. Primary cells can be from blood ortissue. The cells can be engineered cells into which nucleic acids orproteins have been introduced. In some embodiments, different cell typesare added to different wells and the behavior of the cell types iscompared.

An impedance monitoring assay can be from minutes to days or even weeksin duration. Preferably, impedance is monitored at three or more timepoints, although this is not a requirement of the present invention.Impedance can be monitored at regular or irregular time intervals, or acombination of irregular and regular time intervals. In one embodimentof a cell-based impedance assay, the cell-substrate impedance ismonitored at regular time intervals. In some embodiments of the presentinvention, impedance is monitored at irregular intervals and then atregular intervals during a particular time window of the assay.Impedance can be monitored at one frequency or at more than onefrequency. For example, in some preferred embodiments, impedance ismonitored over a range of frequencies for each time point at whichimpedance is monitored. Preferably, impedance is monitored at at leastone frequency between about 1 Hz and about 100 MHz, more preferably atat least one frequency between about 100 Hz and about 2 MHz.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming real-time cell-based assay investigating the effect of acompound on cells, comprising: a) providing an above described system;b) seeding the cells to the wells of multiple-well devices; c) addingthe compound to the wells containing cells; d) monitoring cell-substrateimpedance before and after adding the compound at a regular or irregulartime interval; wherein the time dependent impedance change providesinformation about time dependent cell status before addition of thecompound and about time dependent cell status under the interaction ofthe compound. Information about cell status includes, not limited to,cell attachment or adhesion status (e.g. the degree of cell spread, theattachment area of a cell, the degree of tightness of cell attachment,cell morphology) on the substrate including on the electrodes, cellgrowth or proliferation status; number of viable cells and/or dead cellsin the well; cytoskeleton change and re-organization and number of cellsgoing through apoptosis and/or necrosis. Information about cell statusmay also include any compound-cell interaction leading to any change toone or more of above cell status indicators. For example, if thecompound binds to a receptor on the cell surface and such binding leadsto a change in cell morphology, then the binding of compound to thereceptor can be assayed by the monitored cell-substrate impedance. Thecell-based assays that be performed with above methods include, but notlimited to, cell adhesion, cell apoptosis, cell differentiation, cellproliferation, cell survival, cytotoxicity, cell morphology detection,cell quantification, cell quality control, time-dependent cytotoxicityprofiling, IgE-mediated cell activation or stimulation, receptor-ligandbinding, viral and bacterial toxin mediated cell pathologic changes andcell death, detection and quantification of neutralizing antibodies,specific T-cell mediated cytotoxic effect, cell-based assay forscreening and measuring ligand-receptor binding.

In one embodiment of the above cell-based assay, the cell-substrateimpedance is monitored at regular time intervals. In exemplaryembodiments, the impedance is measured at a regular 2 hour, 1 hour, 30min or 15 min time interval before and after adding the compound. In thepresent application, a real-time assay means that one can perform themeasurement on cell-substrate impedance with various time resolutions,for example, measurement taking place at a longer time interval such asevery hour or every two hours, or at a shorter time interval everyminute or a few minutes. Real-time assay does not mean that themeasurements are provided in a continuous, uninterrupted fashion. Inanother word, real-time assay does not mean that the measurements areperformed at every single moment.

FIG. 2 depicts results of the use of methods of the present invention tomonitor cell proliferation. In this experiment, H460 cells wereintroduced into wells of a 16 well device of a cell-substrate impedancemonitoring system of the present invention, with different wellsreceiving different initial cell seeding numbers. The device was engagedwith a device station of the system that was in a tissue cultureincubator that kept a temperature of 37 degrees C. and an atmosphere of5% CO₂. Cell-substrate impedance was monitored at 15 minute intervalsfor 125 hours. The cell index was calculated by the system for each timepoint and displayed as a function of time to give cell growth(proliferation) curves for each cell seeding number. The cell growthcurves were plotted on a log scale showing exponential growth phases andstationary phases.

FIG. 3 depicts results of real-time monitoring of cell attachment andspreading of NIH3T3 cells. The cells were seeded onto cell-substrateimpedance monitoring devices of the present invention that were coatedwith either poly-L-lysine or fibronectin. The device was connected to adevice station that was in a tissue culture incubator that kept atemperature of 37 degrees C. and an atmosphere of 5% CO₂. Cellattachment and cell spreading on the difference coating surfaces weremonitored by measuring impedance on the cell-substrate monitoringsystem. Impedance was monitored in real time every 3 minutes for 3hours. The cell index for each time point was calculated by theimpedance monitoring system and plotted as a function of time.

FIG. 4 shows the results of an experiment monitoring morphologicalchanges in Cos-7 cells in response to stimulation with epidermal growthfactor (EGF). Cells were seeded in wells of a 16 well monitoring deviceof the present invention that engaged a device station of acell-substate monitoring system. The device station was positioned in anincubator held at 37 degrees C. and 5% CO₂. The cells were serum starvedfor 8 hours and then stimulated with 50 nanograms/mL of EGF. Controlcells did not receive EGF. Impedance was monitored at 3 minute intervalsfor 2 hours and then at 1 hour intervals for 14 hours. The cell indexwas calculated by the system and plotted as a function of time. Aninitial jump in cell index is seen in EGF-treated cells due to membraneruffling and actin dynamics in response to EGF. The arrow indicates thepoint of EGF addition.

D.1. Cell Proliferation Assays

The present invention provides methods for performing cell proliferationassays. In these assays, an increase in monitored impedance isindicative of an increases cell number. The impedance measurements orimpedance values derived from impedance measurements can be plottedversus time to obtain growth curves for cells growing in a fluidcontainer of a cell-substrate monitoring device of the presentinvention.

The present invention provides a method of generating at least one cellgrowth curve, comprising: providing a device of the present inventionhaving two or more electrode arrays, each of which is associated with afluid container of the device; attaching the device to an impedanceanalyzer; adding cells to one or more fluid containers of the device;monitoring impedance from the one or more fluid containers to obtainimpedance measurements at three or more time points after adding thecells to the one or fluid containers; and plotting the impedancemeasurements or values for the three or more time points versus time togenerate at least one growth curve for the cells in the one or morefluid containers.

The present invention also provides a method of generating at least onegrowth curve using a system of the present invention, where the systemincludes a multi-well cell-substrate impedance monitoring device, animpedance analyzer, a device station, and a software program. The methodincludes; providing a multi-well cell-substrate impedance measuringsystem; adding cells to one or more wells of the system; monitoringimpedance from the one or more wells to obtain impedance measurements atthree or more time points after adding cells to the one or more wells;and plotting impedance measurements or impedance values for the three ormore time points versus time to generate a growth curve for the cells inthe one or more wells.

Preferably, using a device or system of the present invention, impedanceis monitored at four or more time points, in which at least one of thefour or more time points is measured from a fluid container prior toadding cells to the fluid container. Preferably, impedance is monitoredat regular or irregular time intervals for an assay period of fromminutes to days. In many cases, proliferation assays can be performed bymonitoring impedance for a period of between several hours and severaldays.

It is preferable to perform replicate proliferation assays in which morethan one fluid container is seeded with same number of cells of the sametype. In this case, a plot can optionally be generated by plottingaveraged impedance measurements of values at assayed time points forreplicate wells versus time. Preferably, a standard deviation for theaveraged values is also calculated.

A growth curve can be generated by plotting impedance measurementsversus time, or by plotting cell index values that are calculated fromimpedance measurements, such as normalized cell index values or deltacell index values versus time. The impedance measurement or cell indexaxis (typically the y-axis) can optionally use a log scale.

An impedance value can be any indices of impedance derived fromimpedance measurement, including, as nonlimiting examples, a cell index,a normalized cell index or a delta cell index. In certain embodiment,impedance value can also be a “raw” measured or monitored impedancevalue. Cell index (including normalized and delta cell index) can be auseful value for plotting growth curves, as it relates impedancemeasurements to cell number. For cell growth curves, a delta cell indexfor a given time point can be derived by subtracting the cell index at abaseline point, such as a time point after cell attachment and justbefore log phase growth, from the cell index measurement at the giventime point. Preferably, determinations of impedance values andgenerating growth curves based on impedance measurements or values canbe performed by software, and preferably by software that interfacesdirectly with the impedance analyzer. For example, where the growthassays are performed by a system of the present invention, impedancevalues (where used) can be measured or derived or calculated and growthcurves generated by a software program that controls and receives datafrom the impedance analyzer.

A growth curve generated from impedance measurements or cell indexvalues (including normalized cell index values and delta cell indexvalues) can optionally be used to calculate one or more kineticparameters of cell growth or behavior. For example, a growth curve canbe used to calculate the length of a lag phase, cell attachment time,cell attachment rate, or a cell doubling time.

FIG. 2 shows real-time monitoring of proliferation of H460 cells seededat different initial cell seeding numbers on a cell substrate impedancemonitoring system of the presnet invention. The cell proliferation wascontinuously recorded every 15 minutes for over 125 hours. The cellgrowth curves in the log scale show exponential cell growth or cells inthe stationary phase. The cell index curve shown here can be used tocalculate cell doubling time (DT). For example, taking the cell indexfor initial seeding density of 900 cells. It took appoximately 57 hrs(from about 55 hr to about 112 hr) for cell index to increase from 0.3to 3.0. Thus, the cell index doubling time is about 17.2 hrs(=log(2)*57). Assuming that there is a linear correlation between cellnumber and cell index in this range, then cell doubling time is the sameas the cell index doubling time. Thus, the cell doubling time (DT) isabout 17.2 hrs. Another simple method to calculate the cell indexdoubling time is just to figure out how long t takes cell index todouble. For example, for the cell index curve with initial seedingdensity of 900 cells. It took about 17 hrs for cell index to change from1.0 (at about 82 hrs) to 2.0 (at about 99 hrs). Thus the clel indexdoublimng time is 17 hrs.

FIG. 3 shows real time monitoring of cell attachment and spreading ofNIH3T3 cells using a cell-substrate imepdnace monitoring system of thepresnet invention. The cells were seeded onto devices coated with eitherpoly-L-lysine or fibronectin. The cell attachment and cell spreadingprocesses on the different coating surfaces were monitored every 3minutes for over 3 hours in real time. Using the cell index curveshowing in FIG. 3, we can calculate the cell attachment time and cellattachment rate. Initial cell index increase immediately following celladdition to the ells (at time=0 in FIG. 3) reflects the cell spreadingand attachment process. The time it takes for cell index to increasefrom zero to a maximum value or a some-what constant value (assumingthat there is no cell division or growth in this initial time periodfollowing cell seeding) is the cell attachment time. For NIH3T3 cells,cell attachment time in a fibronectin coated well is about 1.2 hrs, ascompared with the attachment time of about 3.5 hrs for the same cells ina poly-L-lysine coated well. Cell attachment rate is defined as 1 overthe cell attachment time. Thus, cell attachment rate is about 0.83 hr⁻¹and about 0.29 hr⁻¹ respectively, for NIH3T3 cells attaching to afibronectin-coated well and a poly-L-lysine coated well.

FIG. 4 shows real-time monitoring of morphological changes in Cos-7cells uisng a cell-substrate impedance monitoring system of the presnetinvention. The cells were serum starved for 8 hours and stimulated withor without 50 ng/mL EGF. Changes in cell morphology were monitored at 3min intervals for 2 hours and then 1 hour interval for 14 hours. Theinitial jump in the signal in EGF-treated cells is due to membraneruffling and actin dynamics in response to EGF. The arrow indicates thepoint of EGF stimulation. Using the cell index curve showing in FIG. 4,we can calculate the cell attachment time and cell attachment rate.Initial cell index increase immediately following cell addition to theells (at time=0 in FIG. 4) reflects the cell spreading and attachmentprocess. The time it takes for cell index to increase from zero to amaximum value or a some-what constant value (assuming that there is nocell division or growth in this initial time period following cellseeding) is the cell attachment time. For Cos-7 cells shown here, thecell attachment time is about 4 hrs. Cell attachment rate, as defined: 1over the cell attachment time, is about 0.25 hr⁻¹ for Cos-7 cells.Furthermore, we can also calculate the length of lag phase. The lagphase corresponds to the time it takes for cells to enter the growthphase after the completion of cell attachment process. Based on the cellindex curve in Figure, cell attachment was complete at about 4 hrs. Thecells showed significant increase in cell index—indicating cell growth,at around 9 hrs. Thus, the length of lag phase is about 5 hrs (=9 hr−4hr).

Comparing Growth Curves of Two of More Cell Types

Two or more cell types can be seeded to separate wells in aproliferation assay using the methods of the present invention togenerate growth curves of the two or more cell types. The growth curvesor kinetic parameters derived from the growth curves of the cell typescan be compared.

In this aspect, the invention includes a method of generating growthcurves for at least two cell types, comprising: providing a device ofthe present invention having two or more electrode arrays, each of whichis associated with a fluid container of the device; attaching the deviceto an impedance analyzer; adding cells of two or more cell types to twoor more fluid containers of the device, in which at least one of the twoor more fluid containers receives one cell type and at least one otherof the two or more fluid containers receives a different cell type, toprovide two or more fluid containers comprising two or more differentcell types; monitoring impedance from the two or more fluid containerscomprising different cell types at three or more time points afteradding the two or more cell types to the two or more fluid containers;and plotting impedance measurements or impedance values for the three ormore time points versus time to generate a growth curve for the two ormore cell types.

The present invention also provides a method of generating at least onegrowth curve using a system of the present invention, where the systemincludes a multi-well cell-substrate impedance monitoring device, animpedance analyzer, a device station, and a software program. The methodincludes; providing a multi-well cell-substrate impedance measuringsystem; adding cells of two or more cell types to two or more wells ofthe device, in which at least one of the two or more wells receives onecell type and at least one other of the two or more wells receives adifferent cell type, to provide two or more wells comprising two or moredifferent cell types; monitoring impedance from the two or more wellscomprising different cell types at three or more time points afteradding the two or more cell types to the two or more wells; and plottingimpedance measurements or impedance values for the three or more timepoints versus time to generate a growth curve for the two or more celltypes.

As, described above for proliferation assays, impedance is preferablymonitored using an impedance monitoring device or system at four or moretime points, in which at least one of the four or more time points ismeasured from fluid containers prior to adding cells to the fluidcontainers. Preferably, impedance is monitored at regular or irregulartime intervals for an assay period of from minutes to days, for example,for a period of between several hours and several days.

It is preferable to perform replicate proliferation assays in which morethan one fluid container is seeded with same number of cells of the sametype. In this case, a plot can optionally be generated by plottingaveraged impedance measurements of values at assayed time points forreplicate wells versus time. Preferably, a standard deviation for theaveraged values is also calculated.

Growth curves for different cell types can be generated as describedabove. Impedance or impedance values, such as cell index, normalizedcell index, or delta cell index can be plotted versus time. Theimpedance measurement or cell index axis (typically the y-axis) canoptionally use a log scale.

A growth curve generated from impedance measurements or cell indexvalues (including normalized cell index values and delta cell indexvalues) can optionally be used to calculate one or more kineticparameters of cell growth or behavior. For example, a growth curve canbe used to calculate the duration of a lag phase, cell attachment time,cell attachment rate, or a cell doubling time.

Preferably, the growth curves of the two or more different cell types,or kinetic parameters derived from the growth curves of the two or moredifferent cell types, are compared to determine differences among thecell types in proliferation patterns or rates, or in kinetic parametersthat can be derived from growth curves. The different cell types usedcan be any cell types, including primary cells isolated from blood ortissue of an animal or human, or cells from cell lines. For example,proliferation rates of two types of primary cancer cell can be compared,or of primary cancer cells of the same type but different grades. Inanother example, primary cells of individuals of different genotypes canbe compared. In another example, proliferation rates of primary or cellline stem cells can be compared. In yet another example, growth curvesor parameters of control and genetically modified cells of a cell linecan be compared. In yet another example, growth curves or parameters ofcells infected with virus and control cells can be compared.

D.2. Quantifying Cells Using Cell-Substrate Impedance Devices

The present invention also includes a method of quantifying cells,comprising: providing a device of the present invention having two ormore electrode arrays, each of which is associated with a fluidcontainer of the device; attaching the device to an impedance analyzer;adding cells to one or more fluid containers of the device; monitoringimpedance from the one or more fluid containers to obtain impedancemeasurements at one or more time points after adding the cells to theone or more fluid containers; deriving a cell index for the one or moretime points; and using the cell index to determine the number of cellsin the one or more fluid containers at at least one of the one or moretime points. The cell index is used to determine the number of cellsusing a formula that relates cell index to cell number, in which theformula is obtained by: providing a device for cell-substratemonitoring, attaching the device to an impedance monitor; adding cellsto one or more fluid containers of the device; measuring impedance ofthe one or more fluid containers comprising cells; calculating a cellindex from the impedance measurements; determining the number of cellsof said at least one fluid container at the time of impedance monitoringby a means other than impedance monitoring; and deriving a formula thatrelates the number of cells of the one or more fluid containers at thetwo or more time points with the impedance measurements at the two ormore time points.

In the embodiment of above method for obtaining the formula, sometime,the number of cells introduced to the wells are pre-known orpredetermined before cells are added in to the wells. Under suchconditions, one assumes that there will be no change in cell number orlittle change in cell number when the impedance measurement forobtaining the formula is performed.

The number of cells determined by a method other than impedancemonitoring can be determined by, for example, cell plating,hemacytometer counting, flow cytometry, or Coulter counting.

The method can also be practiced using an impedance monitoring system ofthe present invention, where the system includes a multi-wellcell-substrate impedance monitoring device, an impedance analyzer, adevice station, and a software program. The method includes; providing amulti-well cell-substrate impedance measuring system; adding-cells oneor more wells of the system; monitoring impedance from the one or morewells comprising cells at one or more time points after adding the cellsto the one or more wells; deriving a cell index for the one or more timepoints; and using the cell index to determine the number of cells insaid at least well at at least one of said one or more time points.

The cell index is used to determine the number of cells using a formulathat relates cell index to cell number, in which the formula is obtainedby: providing a system for cell-substrate monitoring, where the systemcomprises at least one multi-well cell-substrate impedance monitoringdevice, adding cells to one or more wells of a device of the system;measuring impedance of the one or more wells comprising cells at two ormore time points; calculating a cell index from the impedancemeasurement at the two or more time points; determining the number ofcells of the one or more wells at the two or more time points by a meansother than impedance monitoring; and deriving a formula that relates thenumber of cells of the one or more wells at the two or more time pointswith the impedance measurements at the two or more time points.

In the embodiment of above method for obtaining the formula, sometime,the number of cells introduced to the wells are pre-known orpredetermined before cells are added in to the wells. Under suchconditions, one assumes that there will be no change in cell number orlittle change in cell number when the impedance measurement forobtaining the formula is performed.

The number of cells determined by a method other than impedancemonitoring can be determined by, for example, cell plating,hemacytometer counting, flow cytometry, or Coulter counting.

Formulas relating cell index (including normalized cell index and deltacell index, which can also be used) to cell number for a given cell typecan be used to quantitate cells of that type in assays using acell-substrate impedance monitoring device, such as a device describedherein. Generally, for a give cell type and for cells-under sirmilarphysiological conditions, the derived formulas relating cell index tocell number can be used in subsequent assays. There is no need to obtainthe formula each time when an assay is performed. However, it isworthwhile to point that the formula can only be valid as long as thecells are under same physiological conditions in the assays where theformula was derived and where the formula is used. If the cell conditionis different, for example, the composition of culture mediais changed,or the cell attachment surface is altered, then the formula will nothold. In another example, if cells are in log-growth phase in one assayand are in stationary phase in another assay, then the formula may nothold. Another point worth mentioning here is that relates the fact thederived cell index or impedance also depends on cell attachment qualityon the surface as well as cell morphology. If cell morphology or cellattachment changes during an assay, then one need to distinguish betweenthe changes caused by change in cell number or in cell morphology or incell attachment.

As an example, we can derive the correlation formula between cell indexand cell number for NIH3T3 cells under the experimental conditions. Theformula for converting cell index to cell number for this particularcase is: Cell number=2000* Cell index−145. To test this formula, wefound the error in estimating cell number based on the cell index datashown in FIG. 8 as compared to the seeded cell number is less than 20%.

D.3. Cell-Based Assays to Test the Effects of Compounds on Cells

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming a cell-based assay investigating the effect of one or moretest compounds on cells, comprising: providing a device of the presentinvention having two or more electrode arrays, each of which isassociated with a fluid container of the device; attaching the device toan impedance analyzer; introducing cells into two or more fluidcontainers of the device that comprise an electrode array; adding atleast one test compound to at least one of the one or more of the fluidcontainers comprising cells and an electrode array to provide at leastone test compound fluid container; providing at least one control fluidcontainer to which cells are added that does not receive test compound;and monitoring cell-substrate impedance of the one or more test compoundfluid containers and the one or more control fluid containers at atleast three time points after adding the one or more test compounds, andanalyzing impedance measurements from the one or more test compoundfluid containers and the one or more control fluid containers at atleast three time points after adding the one or more test compounds, inwhich changes in impedance can provide information about cell responsesto the one or more test compounds.

In a related aspect the present invention also provides a method forperforming a cell-based assay investigating the effect of one or moretest compounds on cells, where the system includes a multi-wellcell-substrate impedance monitoring device, an impedance analyzer, adevice station comprising electronic circuitry that engages the deviceand connects the two or more electrode arrays of the device to theimpedance analyzer, and a software program that controls the devicestation and can record and analyze data from the impedance analyzer. Themethod includes; providing a multi-well cell-substrate impedancemeasuring system; introducing cells into two or more wells of thedevice; adding at least one test compound to at least one of the one ormore of the wells comprising cells to provide at least one test compoundwell; providing at least one control well to which cells are added thatdoes not receive test compound; monitoring cell-substrate impedance ofthe one or more test compound wells and the one or more control wells atat least three time points after adding the one or more test compounds;and analyzing impedance measurements from the one or more test compoundwells and the one or more control wells at at least three time pointsafter adding the one or more test compounds, in which changes inimpedance can provide information about cell responses to the one ormore test compounds.

A test compound can be any compound, including a small molecule, a largemolecule, a molecular complex, an organic molecule, an inorganicmolecule, a biomolecule such as but not limited to a lipid, a steroid, acarbohydrate, a fatty acid, an amino acid, a peptide, a protein, anucleic acid, or any combination of these. A test compound can be asynthetic compound, a naturally occurring compound, a derivative of anaturally-occurring compound, etc. The structure of a test compound canbe known or unknown.

Information about cell responses to the one or more test compoundsincludes, but is not limited to, information about cell attachment oradhesion status (e.g. the degree of cell spread, the attachment area ofa cell, the degree of tightness of cell attachment, cell morphology) onthe substrate including on the electrodes, cell growth or proliferationstatus; number of viable cells and/or dead cells in the well;cytoskeleton change and re-organization and number of cells goingthrough apoptosis and/or necrosis. Information about cell status mayalso include any compound-cell interaction leading to any change to oneor more of above cell status indicators. For example, if the compoundbinds to a receptor on the cell surface and such binding leads to achange in cell morphology, then the binding of compound to the receptorcan be assayed by the monitored cell-substrate impedance.

The cells used in the assay can be primary cells isolated from anyspecies or can be cells of cell lines. The cells can be geneticallyengineered cells (For example, cells from a genetically modifiedorganism, such as for example from a “gene knockout” organism, or cellsthat have been engineered to over-express an endogenous gene or atransgene, or cells whose normal gene expression has been manipulated byuse of antisense molecules or silencing RNA.) In some embodiments,different cell types are added to different wells and the behavior ofthe different cell types in response to one or more compounds iscompared.

The cell-based assays that be performed with above methods include, butare not limited to, cell adhesion, apoptosis, cell differentiation, cellproliferation, cell survival, cytotoxicity, cell morphology detection,cell quantification, cell quality control, time-dependent cytotoxicityprofiling, IgE-mediated cell activation or stimulation, receptor-ligandbinding, viral, bacterial, or environmental toxin mediated cellpathologic changes or cell death, detection or quantification ofneutralizing antibodies, specific T-cell mediated cytotoxic effect, andcell-based assay for screening or measuring ligand-receptor binding.

In the methods of the present invention that investigate test compoundeffects on cells, impedance is preferably monitored from at least onetest compound well at at least one time point before adding said atleast one test compound to said at least one test compound well.Preferably, impedance is monitored at four or more time points, at leastone of which is prior to the addition of one or more test compounds.Preferably, impedance is monitored at regular or irregular timeintervals for an assay period of from minutes to days, for example, fora period of between several hours and several days. In one embodiment ofthe above cell-based assay, the cell-substrate impedance is monitored atat least one time point prior to addition of the test compound, and atregular time intervals thereafter. For example, impedance can bemeasured at one or more intervals before adding the compound and at aregular 2 hour, 1 hour, 30 min or 15 min time intervals after adding thecompound. Preferably, impedance is measured at three or more time pointsspaced at regular intervals. In the present application, a real-timeassay means allows one to perform the measurement on cell-substrateimpedance with various time resolutions, for example, measurement takingplace at a longer time interval such as every hour or every two hours,or at a shorter time interval every minute or a few minutes.

Impedance can be monitored at one frequency or at more than onefrequency. For example, in some preferred embodiments, impedance ismonitored over a range of frequencies for each time point at whichimpedance is monitored. Preferably, impedance is monitored at at leastone frequency between about 1 Hz and about 100 MHz, more preferably atat least one frequency between about 100 Hz and about 2 MHz.

It is preferable to perform replicate test compound assays in which morethan one fluid container of cells receives the same compound at the sameconcentration. In this case, impedance measurements or values can beaveraged for the assayed time points for replicate wells. Preferably, astandard deviation for the averaged values is also calculated.

In the methods of the present invention, analyzing impedance cancomprise plotting cell impedance versus time to obtain at least one testcompound impedance curve and at least one control impedance curve.Preferably, at least one test compound impedance curve and said at leastone control impedance curve are compared to identify a time frame, ifany, in which a test compound curve differs significantly from a controlcurve, indicating a time frame of an effect of a test compound on cells.For example, depending on the time frame at which a test compound curvediffers significantly from a control curve, the test compound can behypothesized to affect one or more of, for example, cell attachment oradhesion, cell growth or proliferation, cytoskeleton organization orfunction, or apoptosis or cell death.

Preferably, data from impedance monitoring of a well that comprisescells and a test compound is compared with data from impedancemonitoring of a well that comprises cells in the absence of a testcompound, however, this is not a requirement of the present invention.For example, it is also possible to compare impedance measurements fromone or more time points prior to the addition of compound to compareimpedance measurements from one or more time points after the additionof compound. Such comparisons can be used directly to assess the cells'response to a compound. It is also possible to calculate a cell index(or cell number index) using the impedance values obtained.

Methods of calculating a cell index (cell number index) are disclosedherein as well as in parent application U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/705,447, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/987,732, both hereinincorporated by reference for disclosures relating to cell number indexand its calculation. The cell index calculated from impedancemeasurements of wells receiving compound can be compared with the cellindex calculated from impedance measurements of control wells to assessthe effect of a compound on cells. Alternatively, cell index calculatedfrom impedance measurements of wells from one or more time points afterthe addition of a compound can be compared with the cell indexcalculated from impedance measurements of wells from one or more timepoints prior to the addition of a compound to assess the effect of acompound on cells. In some preferred embodiments, the cell index can beused as an indicator of cytotoxicity.

The derivation of cell index from impedance measurements is provided inSection C of the present application. Cell index values (includingnormalized cell index values and delta cell index values) from at leastthree time points from at least one test compound well and at least onecontrol well can be plotted versus time to obtain one or more testcompound cell index curve and one or more control cell index curves. Theone or more test compound cell index curves and the one or more controlcell index curves can be compared to identify a time frame, if any, inwhich a test compound curve differs significantly from a control curve,indicating a time frame of an effect of a test compound on cells. Forexample, depending on the time frame at which a test compound curvediffers significantly from a control curve, the test compound can behypothesized to affect one or more of, for example, cell attachment oradhesion, cell growth or proliferation, cytoskeleton organization orfunction, or apoptosis or cell death.

Cell index values at three or more assay time points for one or moretest compound wells and one or more control wells can be used to derivecell change index (CCI) values or a second order derivatives of cellindex at three or more assay time points. The calculation of cell changeindex is provided in Section C of the present application. The value ofCCI at a give time point can be determined to be either approximatelyequal to 0.7, much greater than 0.7, greater than zero and less than0.7, approximately equal to zero, less than zero, or much less thanzero. These values can indicate cell behavior at an assay time point, asCCI approximately equal to 0.7 indicates log rate growth, a CCI muchgreater than 0.7 indicates faster than log rate growth, a CCI greaterthan zero and less than 0.7 indicates slower than log rate growth, a CCI

-   -   approximately equal to zero indicates no growth (a constant cell        index), a CCI less than zero indicates cells are detaching from        the substrate, and a CCI much less than zero indicates cell are        detaching rapidly from the substrate.

For a given assay time point, differences in CCI value between controland compound treated wells can indicate a time at which the compound hasan effect on cells, as well as providing information on the type ofeffect the compound has.

The CCI can further be used to obtain information on the effect of atest compound by plotting CCI versus time for at least three assay timepoints to obtain a cell change index curve (CCI curve) for at least onecontrol container or well and at at least one test compound container orwell. One or more test compound CCI curves can be compared with one ormore control CCI curves to obtain information on cell status or behaviorin response to said at least one test compound, wherein said cellularstatus or behavior is at least one of: cell attachment or adhesionstatus; cell growth or proliferation status; the number of viable cellsor dead cells; cytoskeleton change or re-organization; or the number ofcells going through apoptosis or necrosis.

Cell-Based Assays with More than One Cell Type

The present invention also provides methods of comparing the effects ofa compound on two or more cell types. In one aspect, the methodcomprises: providing a device of the present invention having two ormore electrode arrays, each of which is associated with a fluidcontainer of the device; attaching the device to an impedance analyzer;introducing cells into two or more fluid containers of the device thatcomprise an electrode array, wherein at least one of the two or morefluid containers receives one cell type and at least one other of thetwo or more fluid containers receives a different cell type; adding atest compound to the one or more fluid containers receiving one celltype and adding the test compound to the one or more fluid containersreceiving a different cell type to provide at least two test compoundfluid containers that comprise cells of different types; providing atleast two control fluid containers that do not receive test compound, inwhich at least one of the control fluid containers receives cells of theone type and at least one of the control fluid containers receives cellsof the different type; monitoring cell-substrate impedance of the two ormore test compound fluid containers that comprise different cell typesand the one or more control fluid containers at at least three timepoints after adding the one or more test compounds; and analyzingimpedance measurements from the two or more test compound fluidcontainers comprising different cell types and from the one or morecontrol fluid containers at at least three time points after adding theone or more test compounds, in which changes in impedance can provideinformation about cell responses to the one or more test compounds.

In a related aspect the present invention also provides a method forperforming a cell-based assay investigating the effect of one or moretest compounds on cells using a cell-substrate impedance monitoringsystem of the present invention, where the system includes a multi-wellcell-substrate impedance monitoring device, an impedance analyzer, adevice station comprising electronic circuitry that engages the deviceand connects the two or more electrode arrays of the device to theimpedance analyzer, and a software program that controls the devicestation and can record and analyze data from the impedance analyzer. Themethod includes: providing a multi-well cell-substrate impedancemeasuring system; introducing cells into two or more wells of the devicethat comprise an electrode array, wherein at least one of the two ormore wells receives one cell type and at least one other of the two ormore wells receives a different cell type; adding a test compound to theone or more wells receiving one cell type and adding the test compoundto the one or more wells receiving a different cell type to provide atleast two test compound wells that comprise cells of different types;providing at least two control wells that do not receive test compound,in which at least one of the wells receives cells of the one type and atleast one of the control wells receives cells of the different type;monitoring cell-substrate impedance of the two or more test compoundwells that comprise different cell types and the one or more controlwells at at least three time points after adding the one or more testcompounds; and analyzing impedance measurements from the two or moretest compound wells comprising different cell types and from the one ormore control wells at at least three time points after adding the one ormore test compounds, in which changes in impedance can provideinformation about cell responses to the one or more test compounds.

In the methods of the present invention that investigate test compoundeffects on cells, impedance is preferably monitored from at least twotest compound wells comprising different cell types at at least one timepoint before adding test compound to the at least one two compoundwells. Preferably, impedance is monitored at four or more time points,at least one of which is prior to the addition of one or more testcompounds. Preferably, impedance is monitored at regular or irregulartime intervals for an assay period of from minutes to days, for example,for a period of between several hours and several days. In oneembodiment of the above cell-based assay, the cell-substrate impedanceis monitored at at least one time point prior to addition of the testcompound, and at regular time intervals thereafter. For example,impedance can be measured at one or more intervals before adding thecompound and at a regular 2 hour, 1 hour, 30 min or 15 min timeintervals after adding the compound. Preferably, impedance is measuredat three or more time points spaced at regular intervals. In the presentapplication, a real-time assay means allows one to perform themeasurement on cell-substrate impedance with various time resolutions,for example, measurement taking place at a longer time interval such asevery hour or every two hours, or at a shorter time interval everyminute or a few minutes.

Impedance can be monitored at one frequency or at more than onefrequency. For example, in some preferred embodiments, impedance ismonitored over a range of frequencies for each time point at whichimpedance is monitored. Preferably, impedance is monitored at at leastone frequency between about 1 Hz and about 100 MHz, more preferably atat least one frequency between about 100 Hz and about 2 MHz.

As disclosed in an earlier section on compound assays, a test compoundcan be any compound whose effect on cells can be investigated. A testcompound used in assays comparing cell responses can be a compound whoseeffect on one or more of the cell types to be assayed is known, or canbe a compound whose effects on any of the cell types to be assayed areunknown. In preferred methods of the present invention, cells areintroduced into at least three wells of the device that each comprise anelectrode array, and at least one well that comprises an electrode arrayand comprises cells does not receive a test compound. A control wellthat does not receive a test compound can be monitored, and itsimpedance data can be compared with that of wells that receive acompound to determine the effect of the test compounds on cells.

As disclosed in a previous section for compound assays, the cell typesused in the assay can be primary cells isolated from any species or canbe cells of cell lines. In some preferred embodiments, the differentcell types are the same type of cell from different individuals, andthus have different genotypes. One or more of the cell types can begenetically engineered (For example, cells from a genetically modifiedorganism, such as for example from a “gene knockout” organism, or cellsthat have been engineered to overexpress an endogenous gene or atransgene, or cells whose normal gene expression has been manipulated byuse of antisense molecules or silencing RNA.) In these cases,genetically modified cells can be compared with control cells. Inanother example the cells can be, for example, stem cells from differentstages of differentiation or of different genotypes whose response togrowth factors is being compared In other examples the cells can becancer cells where the test compound is tested for its cytotoxiceffects. The cells can be primary cancer cells of the same type isolatedfrom different individuals, for example, or different cancer cell lines,or cancer cells of the same type but of different grades. In someembodiments, three or more different cell types are added to differentwells and the behavior of the three or more different cell types inresponse to one or more compounds is compared. In preferred embodimentsof the present invention, for each cell type tested there is a controlperformed in which the control does not receive test compound.

A variety of assays can be employed, where the effect of a test compoundon the behavior of two or more cell types in the assay is underinvestigation. Such assays include, as nonlimiting examples, celladhesion assays, apoptosis assays, cell differentiation assays, cellproliferation assays, cell survival assays, cytotoxicity assays, cellmorphology detection assays, cell quantification assays, cell qualitycontrol assays, time-dependent cytotoxicity profiling assays,IgE-mediated cell activation or stimulation assays, receptor-ligandbinding assays, viral, bacterial, or environmental toxin mediated cellpathologic changes or cell death assays, detection or quantification ofneutralizing antibodies, specific T-cell mediated cytotoxic effectassays, and cell-based assays for screening or measuring ligand-receptorbinding.

In the assays of the present invention is preferable to performreplicate test compound assays in which more than one fluid container ofcells of the same type receives the same compound at the sameconcentration. In this case, impedance measurements or values canoptionally be averaged for the assayed time points for replicate wells.Preferably, a standard deviation for the averaged values is alsocalculated.

Preferably, time-dependent responses of the first and second types ofcells are compared to see how similar or different the responses fromthe two types of cells are. In one method of the present invention,impedance from a first cell type well is plotted versus time to give afirst cell type impedance curve and impedance from a second cell typewell is plotted versus time to give a second cell type impedance curve.Cell index (including normalized cell index or delta cell index) fromwells comprising cells of different types can also be calculated fromimpedance data and plotted versus time to give cell index curves.

The impedance curves or cell index curves from the different cell typescan be compared to determine whether the time frame, magnitude, andduration of a cells response to a compound are similar or different.Preferably, impedance curves or cell index curves generated from controlwells comprising each cell type in the absence of compound are comparedwith the test compound curves to assess the compound-specific effects oneach cell type. The effects of the compounds on one or more of the twoor more cell types can be effects on cell attachment or adhesion, cellgrowth or proliferation; the number of viable cells or dead cells;cytoskeleton organization or function; or the number of cells goingthrough apoptosis or necrosis in response to a test compound. Assays canbe designed to investigate the compound's effects on particular cellularprocesses or activities.

The effect of a compound on at least one of the cell types used in theassay may be known. The mechanism of action of a compound on at leastone of the cell types used in the assay may be known. In such cases,comparison of the compound response of one or more different cell typeswith the compound response of a cell type whose response to the compoundis characterized can give information as to the similarity or differencein response of a different cell type to the compound.

In one preferred embodiment of this method, time-dependent cytotoxicresponses of particular cell types to a compound are compared.Cytotoxicity assays can provide information on the sensitivity of one ormore cell type to a compound.

FIGS. 10A and B show the responses of various cell types (listed inTable 1) to olomoucine treatment as monitored using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. The indicated celllines were seeded onto microtiter devices fabricated with electronicsensor arrays shown in FIG. 1. The cellular responses were continuouslymonitored at 15 or 30 or 60 minutes time interval before and aftertreatment with olomoucine. Comparison among these cell index curvesshowed that certain similarity does exist. Take the treatment ofolomoucine at 100 uM as an example. For a significant number of celltypes tested, olomoucine treatment resulted in a near-constant cellindex for some length of time (for example: 10, 20 or 30 hrs) a longtime. This relates to the fact olomoucine is a cell cycle restingcompound and for some time period following compound addition, cells donot divide any more and so cell number does not change but cells remain“live”. Thus, for such time period, cell index did not change with time.The “near-constant” cell index curves were also observed for cellstreated with roscovitine, which is another compound causing cell cyclearrest. The cell index curves shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B are strikinglydifferent from the cell index curves shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B, and FIGS.11A and 11B, where compounds follow different mechanism of compoundaction.

The CI derived from impedance data from wells comprising different celltypes and a test compound can be used to derive cell change index (CCI)values for assay time points. CCI values of particular cell types atassay time points can be compared. Such comparisons can indicate whetherdifferent cell types are responding similarly to a compound. CCI canalso be plotted versus time, and CCI curves of cells of different typesassayed with one or more test compounds can be compared to determine thesimilarities or differences in cellular responses of different celltypes to a test compound.

Cell-Based Assays with More than One Compound

The present invention also provides methods of comparing the effects oftwo or more different compounds on cells. In one aspect, the methodcomprises: providing a device of the present invention having three ormore electrode arrays, each of which is associated with a fluidcontainer of the device; attaching the device to an impedance analyzer;introducing cells into three or more fluid containers of the device thatcomprise an electrode array; adding at least one test compound to atleast one of the three or more fluid containers comprising cells andadding at least one different test compound to at least one other of thethree or more fluid containers comprising cells to provide at least twodifferent test compound fluid containers; providing as a control fluidcontainer at least one of the three or more fluid containers, in whichthe control fluid container receives cells but does not receivecompound; attaching an impedance analyzer to the device; monitoringcell-substrate impedance of the two or more different test compoundfluid containers that comprise different compounds and the one or morecontrol fluid containers at at least three time points after adding theone or more test compounds; and analyzing impedance measurements fromthe two or more different test compound fluid containers and from theone or more control fluid containers at at least three time points afteradding the one or more test compounds, in which changes in impedance canprovide information about cell responses to the one or more testcompounds.

In a related aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming a cell-based assay investigating the effect of two or moretest compounds on cells using a cell-substrate impedance monitoringsystem. The method includes: a) providing a cell-substrate impedancemonitoring system of the present invention; b) introducing cells into atleast two wells of the device that each comprise an electrode array, c)adding to at least one well of the device comprising cells and anelectrode array a first test compound; d) adding to at least one otherwell of the device comprising cells and an electrode array a second testcompound; and e) monitoring cell-substrate impedance of at least onewell comprising cells and a first compound and at least one wellcomprising cells and a second compound, in which changes in impedancecan provide information about cell responses to the first and secondcompounds.

Preferably, time-dependent responses of cells to the first compound andthe second compound are compared to see how similar or different theresponses from the two compounds are. In one preferred embodiment ofthis method, time-dependent cytotoxic responses are compared.

The cells and test compound that can be used in the assay can be any asdescribed above for assays testing effects of test compounds.

In the assays of the present invention is preferable to performreplicate test compound assays in which more than one fluid container ofcells of the same type receives the same compound at the sameconcentration. In this case, impedance measurements or values canoptionally be averaged for the assayed time points for replicate wells.Preferably, a standard deviation for the averaged values is alsocalculated.

Impedance monitoring can be as described above for assays testingeffects of test compounds. Preferably impedance is monitored from the atleast two different test compound wells and at least one control well atat least one time point before adding said at least one test compound tosaid at least one test compound well. Preferably, impedance is monitoredat four or more time points, at least one of which is prior to theaddition of one or more test compounds. Preferably, impedance ismonitored at regular or irregular time intervals for an assay period offrom minutes to days, for example, for a period of between several hoursand several days. In one embodiment of the above cell-based assay, thecell-substrate impedance is monitored at at least one time point priorto addition of the test compound, and at regular time intervalsthereafter. For example, impedance can be measured at one or moreintervals before adding the compound and at a regular 2 hour, 1 hour, 30min or 15 min time intervals after adding the compound. Preferably,impedance is measured at three or more time points spaced at regularintervals. In the present application, a real-time assay means allowsone to perform the measurement on cell-substrate impedance with varioustime resolutions, for example, measurement taking place at a longer timeinterval such as every hour or every two hours, or at a shorter timeinterval every minute or a few minutes.

Impedance can be monitored at one frequency or at more than onefrequency. For example, in some preferred embodiments, impedance ismonitored over a range of frequencies for each time point at whichimpedance is monitored. Preferably, impedance is monitored at at leastone frequency between about 1 Hz and about 100 MHz, more preferably atat least one frequency between about 100 Hz and about 2 MHz.

Preferably, data from impedance monitoring of wells that comprisedifferent test compounds are compared.

In one embodiment, for at least two different compound wells, impedanceat three or more assay time points can be plotted versus time.Preferably, for a control well that does not receive compound, impedanceat the same three or more assay-time points is also plotted versus time.The impedance curves of different compound wells can be compared withthe control impedance curve to determine whether the compounds have asimilar or different effect on cells.

Cell index (including normalized cell index or delta cell index) fromwells comprising cells of different types can also be calculated fromimpedance data and plotted versus time to give cell index curves.

The impedance curves or cell index curves from the different cell typescan be compared to determine whether the time frame, magnitude, andduration the response of cells to different compounds are similar ordifferent. Preferably, impedance curves or cell index curves generatedfrom one or more control wells comprising cells in the absence ofcompound are compared with the test compound curves to assess thecompound-specific effects of each compound. The effects of the compoundson cells can be for example, effects on cell attachment or adhesion,cell growth or proliferation; the number of viable cells or dead cells;cytoskeleton organization or function; or the number of cells goingthrough apoptosis or necrosis in response to a test compound. Assays canbe designed to investigate the compound's effects on particular cellularprocesses or activities.

The effect on cells of one or more of the compounds used in the assaymay be known. The mechanism of action of one or more compounds used inthe assay may be known. In such cases, comparison of the responses ofcells to other test compounds used in the assay with cellular responsesto the one or more compounds whose effects are characterized can giveinformation as to the similarity or difference in response of differentcompounds to a known compound.

Information about cell responses to the compound includes, but is notlimited to, information about cell attachment or adhesion status (e.g.the degree of cell spread, the attachment area of a cell, the degree oftightness of cell attachment, cell morphology) on the substrateincluding on the electrodes, cell growth or proliferation status; numberof viable cells and/or dead cells in the well; cytoskeleton change andre-organization and number of cells going through apoptosis and/ornecrosis. Information about cell status may also include anycompound-cell interaction leading to any change to one or more of abovecell status indicators. For example, if the compound binds to a receptoron the cell surface and such binding leads to a change in cellmorphology, then the binding of compound to the receptor can be assayedby the monitored cell-substrate impedance. The cell-based assays that beperformed with above methods include, but not limited to, cell adhesion,cell apoptosis, cell differentiation, cell proliferation, cell survival,cytotoxicity, cell morphology detection, cell quantification, cellquality control, time-dependent cytotoxicity profiling, IgE-mediatedcell activation or stimulation, receptor-ligand binding, viral andbacterial toxin mediated cell pathologic changes and cell death,detection and quantification of neutralizing antibodies, specific T-cellmediated cytotoxic effect, cell-based assay for screening and measuringligand-receptor binding.

A plurality of compounds can be assayed with multiple cell types. In onepreferred embodiment of this method, time-dependent cytotoxic responsesof different cell types to a set of compounds are compared.

The CI derived from impedance data from wells comprising different celltypes and a test compound can be used to derive cell change index (CCI)values for assay time points. CCI values of particular cell types atassay time points can be compared. Such comparisons can indicate whetherdifferent cell types are responding similarly to a compound. CCI canalso be plotted versus time, and CCI curves of cells of different typesassayed with one or more test compounds can be compared to determine thesimilarities or differences in cellular responses of different celltypes to a test compound.

For example, the time frame, magnitude, and duration of a difference inresponse as evidenced by the curves can indicate a difference inefficacy or mechanism of compounds. The impedance differences canreflect differences in, for example, cell attachment or adhesion, cellgrowth or proliferation; the number of viable cells or dead cells;cytoskeleton organization or function; or the number of cells goingthrough apoptosis or necrosis in response to a test compound.

A variety of assays can be employed, where the effect of two or moretest compound on the behavior cells is under investigation. Such assaysinclude, as nonlimiting examples, cell adhesion assays, apoptosisassays, cell differentiation assays, cell proliferation assays, cellsurvival assays, cytotoxicity assays, cell morphology detection assays,cell quantification assays, cell quality control assays, time-dependentcytotoxicity profiling assays, IgE-mediated cell activation orstimulation assays, receptor-ligand binding assays, viral, bacterial, orenvironmental toxin mediated cell pathologic changes or cell deathassays, detection or quantification of neutralizing antibodies, specificT-cell mediated cytotoxic effect assays, and cell-based assays forscreening or measuring ligand-receptor binding.

In one preferred embodiment of this method, time-dependent cytotoxicresponses of cells to a set of compounds are compared. “Cytotoxicityprofiling” in which the impedance responses of cells in response to aplurality of potentially cytotoxic compounds are compared, can provideinformation on the efficacy and mechanism of a test compound.Cytotoxicity profiling can be performed by comparing any combination ofimpedance plots, kinetic parameters derived from impedance plots, CIplots, CCI values, and CCI plots.

In one embodiment of the method, analyzing the cytotoxicity response mayinclude derivation of the slope of change in the time dependentcytotoxicity response at a given compound concentration. In yet anotherembodiment of the method, analyzing real-time cytotoxicity response mayinclude derivation of high-order derivatives of the time dependentcytotoxicity response with respect to time at a given compoundconcentration.

Evaluating the Effect of Different Concentrations of a Compound on Cells

The present invention also includes methods of performing assays to testthe effect of different concentrations of one or more test compounds oncells.

In one aspect, a method for testing different concentrations of a testcompound on cells comprises: providing a device of the present inventionhaving three or more electrode arrays, each of which is associated witha fluid container of the device; attaching the device to an impedanceanalyzer; introducing cells into at least two of the three or more fluidcontainers of the device that comprise an electrode array; addingdifferent concentrations of a test compound to the two or more fluidcontainers of the device that comprise cells; providing a control fluidcontainer that comprises cells but does not receive compound; monitoringcell-substrate impedance of the two or more different test compoundfluid containers that comprise different concentrations of a testcompound and of the one or more control fluid containers at at leastthree time points after adding a test compound; and analyzing impedancemeasurements from the two or more different test compound fluidcontainers and one or more control fluid containers at at least threetime points after adding a test compound, in which changes in impedancecan provide information about cell responses to the test compounds.

In a related aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming a cell-based assay investigating the effect of two or moreconcentrations of a test compound on cells using a cell-substrateimpedance monitoring system. The method includes: providing acell-substrate impedance monitoring system of the present invention;introducing cells into at least two of the three or more wells of thedevice that comprise an electrode array; adding different concentrationsof a test compound to the two or more wells of the device that comprisecells; providing a control well that comprises cells but does notreceive test compound; monitoring cell-substrate impedance of the two ormore different test compound wells that comprise differentconcentrations of a test compound and the one or more control wells atat least three time points after adding a test compound; and analyzingimpedance measurements from the two or more different test compoundwells and the one or more control wells at at least three time pointsafter adding a test compound, in which changes in impedance can provideinformation about cell responses to the test compounds.

The cells and test compound that can be used in the assay can be any asdescribed above for assays testing effects of test compounds.

Impedance monitoring can be as described above for assays-testingeffects of test compounds. Preferably impedance is monitored from the atleast two different test compound wells and at least one control well atat least one time point before adding said at least one test compound tosaid at least one test compound well. Preferably, impedance is monitoredat four or more time points, at least one of which is prior to theaddition of one or more test compounds. Preferably, impedance ismonitored at regular or irregular time intervals for an assay period offrom minutes to days, for example, for a period of between several hoursand several days. In one embodiment of the above cell-based assay, thecell-substrate impedance is monitored at at least one time point priorto addition of the test compound, and at regular time intervalsthereafter. For example, impedance can be measured at one or moreintervals before adding the compound and at a regular 2 hour, 1 hour, 30min or 15 min time intervals after adding the compound. Preferably,impedance is measured at three or more time points spaced at regularintervals. In the present application, a real-time assay means allowsone to perform the measurement on cell-substrate impedance with varioustime resolutions, for example, measurements taking place at a longertime interval such as every hour or every two hours, or at a shortertime interval every minute or a few minutes.

Impedance can be monitored at one frequency or at more than onefrequency. For example, in some preferred embodiments, impedance ismonitored over a range of frequencies for each time point at whichimpedance is monitored. Preferably, impedance is monitored at at leastone frequency between about 1 Hz and about 100 MHz, more preferably atat least one frequency between about 100 Hz and about 2 MHz.

In one embodiment, for at least two different compound concentrations,impedance or, preferably, cell index (including normalized cell index ordelta cell index), at three or more assay time points is be plottedversus time. Preferably, for a control well that does not receivecompound, impedance at the same three or more assay time points is alsoplotted versus time. An impedance curve or cell index curve can give anindication of the time frame at which a compound affects cell response.In some preferred embodiments, the cell index can be used as anindicator of cytotoxicity.

FIGS. 9A and B shows the responses of various cell types (listed inTable 1) to doxorubicin treatment as monitored using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. The indicated celllines were seeded onto microtiter devices fabricated with electronicsensor arrays shown in FIG. 1. The cellular responses were continuouslymonitored at 15 or 30 or 60 minutes time interval before and aftertreatment with doxorubicin. Comparison among these cell index curvesshowed that certain similarity does exist. Take the treatment ofdoxoorubincin at 3.13 uM as an example. For most of cell types tested,initially after the treatment, cell index increased with time in similarway to the cell index from DMSO control wells. After 10-20 hrs,depending on cell type, the cell index reached a peak and starteddecreasing with time. From that time on, the cell index monotonicallydecreases. Such cell index curves—characterized by “going up first andthen going down”—were also observed for the cells treated with5-Fluorouracil. Both Doxorubicin and 5-Fluorouacil act on cells througheffects on DNA replication or topology.

Furthermore, such cell index curves are strikingly different from thecell index curves shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, where 100 uM of olomoucineresulted in a nearly constant cell index value for 10, 20 even 30 hrsafter compound addition. The cell index curves shown in FIG. 9 are alsostrikingly different from the cell index curves in FIG. 11, where nMconcentration of paclitaxel caused an intial cell index decrease forabout 15 hrs (it varies between cell types) and then a cell indexincrease. These dynamic changes in cell index curves reflect the factthat these different compounds interacts with the cells differently.Compounds that interact with cells in similar way or following samemechanism would result in a similar cell index response curves. Oneapplication of this is to investigate the mechanism of compound actionbased on the observed cell index curves. If cell index responses followa certain pattern, then one may be able to deduce the mechanism ofcompound action. Alternatively, if two compounds showed similar, dynamiccell index response curves, then these two compounds may act on thecells with similar or same mechanism of compound action.

FIGS. 11A and 11B shows the responses of various cell types (listed inTable 1) to paclitaxel treatment as monitored using a cell-substrateimepdnace monitoring system of the presnet invention. The indicated celllines were seeded onto microtiter devices fabricated with electronicsensor arrays shown in FIG. 1. The cellular responses were continuouslymonitored at 15 or 30 or 60 minutes time interval before and aftertreatment with paclitaxel. Comparison among these cell index curvesshowed that certain similarity does exist. Take the treatment ofpalitaxel at 0.78-12.5 nM range as examples. Typically, such nMpaclitaxel treatment resulted in an initial decrease in cell index forabout 15-20 hrs. For one particular cell index curve, after the cellindex reached a minimum, it then reversed its decreasing trend andstarted to increase. Such “going down and then going up” feature in cellindex curves was also observed in cell index curves for cells treatedwith vinblastin or colcemid. Examples of cell index curve forvinblastin-treated cells are shown in FIG. 16A and FIG. 22. All thesecompounds—i.e., paclitaxel, vinblastin and colcemid, are so calledmitotic poisons and follow similar mechanism of drug action. Forexample, both vinblastin and paclitaxel act on microtubule dynamicswithin a cell.

In addition, for a given assay time point, cell index (includingnormalized cell index or delta cell index), can be plotted versuscompound concentration. Such dose response relationships can be used toderive a time-dependent IC5, IC10, IC20, IC30, IC40, IC50, IC60, IC70,IC80, IC90, or IC95. In some preferred embodiments, a time-dependentIC50 is calculated for a compound. Determining a range of time-dependentIC50s for a compound provides information on when the effect of thecompound on cells is maximal.

The CI derived from impedance data from wells comprising different celltypes and a test compound can be used to derive cell change index (CCI)values for assay time points. CCI values of particular cell types atassay time points can be compared. Such comparisons can indicate whetherdifferent cell types are responding similarly to a compound. CCI canalso be plotted versus time, and CCI curves of cells of different typesassayed with one or more test compounds can be compared to determine thesimilarities or differences in cellular responses of different celltypes to a test compound.

For example, the time frame, magnitude, and duration of a difference inresponse as evidenced by the curves can indicate a difference inefficacy or mechanism of compounds. The impedance differences canreflect differences in, for example, cell attachment or adhesion, cellgrowth or proliferation; the number of viable cells or dead cells;cytoskeleton organization or function; or the number of cells goingthrough apoptosis or necrosis in response to a test compound.

Preferably, data from impedance monitoring of wells that comprisedifferent cell types are compared. In one preferred embodiment impedancemonitoring is performed for different cell types exposed to multipledose concentrations of a compound. In some embodiments, multiplecompounds can be tested with multiple cell types. In some embodiments,multiple compounds at multiple concentrations can be tested withmultiple cell types.

Cytotoxicity Profiling

In another aspect, the present invention provides a method forperforming real-time cytotoxicity assay of a compound, comprising: a)providing an above described system; b) seeding cells to the wells ofmultiple-well devices; c) adding the compound to the wells containingcells; d) monitoring cell-substrate impedance before and after addingthe compound at a regular or irregular time interval; wherein the timedependent impedance change provides information about time dependentcytotoxicity of the compound. In one embodiment, the cell-substrateimpedance is monitored at regular time intervals. In exemplaryembodiments, the impedance is measured at a regular 2 hour, 1 hour, 30min or 15 min time interval before and after adding the compound.

In one embodiment of the above method, multiple wells with same celltypes are used, wherein each well is added with the compound ofdifferent concentrations. The method provides the time-dependent andconcentration-dependent cytotoxic responses.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method foranalyzing and comparing time-dependent cytotoxic effects of a firstcompound and a second compound on a cell type, comprising: a) performinga real-time cytotoxicity assay on a cell type with the first compoundusing the method described above; b) performing a real-time cytotoxicityassay on said cell type with the second compound using the methoddescribed above; c) comparing the time-dependent cytotoxic responses ofthe first compound and the second compound to see how similar ordifferent the responses from the two compounds are. In one embodiment ofthis method, time-dependent cytotoxic responses are determined for thefirst compound at multiple dose concentrations. In another embodiment,time-dependent cytotoxic responses are determined for the secondcompound at multiple dose concentrations. In yet another embodiment,time-dependent cytotoxic responses are determined for both firstcompound and second compound at multiple dose concentrations.

In another embodiment of above methods, the first compound is a compoundwith a known mechanism for its cytotoxic effect and the second compoundis a compound with an unknown mechanism for its cytotoxic effect. If thetime dependent cytotoxic responses from the second compound are similarto that of the first one, the second compound may follow a similarmechanism for its cytotoxic effect to the first compound.

Various approaches may be used in comparing the cytotoxic responses ofthe compounds. A cell index (or cell number index) can optionally becalculated using the impedance values obtained. In one embodiment of themethod described above, time dependent IC50 may be derived for thecompounds and comparison between their cytotoxic responses is done bycomparing their time dependent IC50 curves based on cell index values.If the IC50 curves follow a similar time-dependent trend, the twocompounds may follow a similar mechanism for inducing cytotoxictyeffects. In another embodiment of the method described, directcomparison of time-dependent cytotoxic responses of two compounds aredone where the concentrations for the two compounds may be the same ormay be different. Direct comparison between time-dependent cytotoxicresponses may be done by analyzing the slope of change in the measuredresponses (that is equivalent to the first order derivative of theresponse with respect to time) and comparing the time-dependent slopesfor the two compounds. In another approach, the time-dependent cytotoxicresponses may be analyzed for their higher order derivatives withrespect to time. Comparing such high order derivatives may provideadditional information as for the mechanisms of compound-inducedcytotoxicity.

In one embodiment of the method, analyzing real-time cytotoxicityresponse may include the derivation of time-dependent IC50 values forthe compound on the multiple cell types. In another embodiment of themethod, analyzing real-time cytotoxicity response may include derivationof the slope of change in the time dependent cytotoxicity response at agiven compound concentration. In yet another embodiment of the method,analyzing real-time cytotoxicity response may include derivation ofhigh-order derivatives of the time dependent cytotoxicity response withrespect to time at a given compound concentration.

In yet another embodiment, the above methods are applied to performcytotoxicity profiling of multiple compounds on multiple cell types.

In another embodiment of the method, analyzing real-time cytotoxicityresponse may include derivation of the slope of change in the timedependent cytotoxicity response at a given compound concentration. Inyet another embodiment of the method, analyzing real-time cytotoxicityresponse may include derivation of high-order derivatives of the timedependent cytotoxicity response with respect to time at a given compoundconcentration.

Some examples of compound assays that can be performed using acell-substrate impedance system of the present invention are provided byway of illustration with reference to the figures. In these examples,cell index is calculated using the same method as the Cell Indexcalculation method (A) as described in Section C of the presentapplication. In some of the figures of the present application,Normalized Cell Index was plotted. The Normalized Cell Index at a giventime point is calculated by dividing the Cell Index at the time point bythe Cell Index at a reference time point. Thus, the Normalized CellIndex is 1 at the reference time point.

As described in the present application, if the cell attachmentconditions remain unchanged or exhibit little change over the course ofan assay that uses impedance monitoring, then the larger the cell index,the larger the number of the cells in the wells. A decrease in cellindex suggests that some cells are detaching from the substrate surfaceor dying under the influence of the compound. An increase in cell indexsuggests that more cells are attaching to the substrate surfaces,indicating an increase in overall cell number.

FIG. 5 shows curves that represent the time-dependent cell index forH460 cells treated with different concentrations of the anticancer drugpaclitaxel. In this experiment, H460 cells were introduced into wells ofa 16× cell-substrate impedance monitoring device. The device waspositioned on a device station that was located in an incubatormaintaining conditions of 37 degrees C. and 5% CO₂. The cells werecultured and treated at their exponential growth phase with differentconcentrations of paclitaxel. The dynamic response of the cells todifferent doses of paclitaxel was monitored by monitoring cell-substrateimpedance in real time every 15 minutes for 50 hours after treatmentusing a cell-substrate impedance monitoring system. The cell-substrateimpedance monitoring system calculated the cell index at each time pointmonitored and plotted the cell index as a function of time. Forpaclitaxel concentrations between 67 nanomolar and 500 nanomolar, H460cells exhibited a gradual decrease in cell index after compoundaddition. However, the cell index reached a minimum at a time dependenton the compound concentration, between about 15 hours and 20 hours aftercompound addition. After that point, there was a gradual increase incell index in these wells. The cell index for compound concentration of33 nanomolar exhibited a near-constant value for up to about 15 hoursafter compound addition. After 15 hours following compound addition, thecell index exhibited a gradual increase.

Information about cell responses to the compound includes, but is notlimited to, information about cell attachment or adhesion status (e.g.the degree of cell spread, the attachment area of a cell, the degree oftightness of cell attachment, cell morphology) on the substrateincluding on the electrodes, cell growth or proliferation status; numberof viable cells and/or dead cells in the well; cytoskeleton change andre-organization and number of cells going through apoptosis and/ornecrosis. Information about cell status may also include anycompound-cell interaction leading to any change to one or more of abovecell status indicators. For example, if the compound binds to a receptoron the cell surface and such binding leads to a change in cellmorphology, then the binding of compound to the receptor can be assayedby the monitored cell-substrate impedance. The cell-based assays that beperformed with above methods include, but not limited to, cell adhesion,cell apoptosis, cell differentiation, cell proliferation, cell survival,cytotoxicity, cell morphology detection, cell quantification, cellquality control, time-dependent cytotoxicity profiling, IgE-mediatedcell activation or stimulation, receptor-ligand binding, viral andbacterial toxin mediated cell pathologic changes and cell death,detection and quantification of neutralizing antibodies, specific T-cellmediated cytotoxic effect, cell-based assay for screening and measuringligand-receptor binding.

FIG. 6 shows curves that represent the time-dependent cell index forH460 cells treated with anticancer drug AC 101103. H460 cells wereintroduced into wells of a 16× cell-substrate impedance monitoringdevice. The device was positioned on a device station that was locatedin an incubator maintaining conditions of 37 degrees C. and 5% CO₂. Thecells were cultured and treated at their exponential growth phase withdifferent concentrations of AC101103. The dynamic response of the cellsto different doses of AC101103 was monitored by measuring impedance inreal time every 30 minutes for about 20 hours after treatment on thecell-substrate monitoring system.

Notably, the time-dependent cell index in FIG. 6 is significantlydifferent from those shown in FIG. 5. For compound concentrations at3.125 microgram/ml, 6.25 microgram/ml and 12.5 microgram/ml, the cellindex exhibited a near-constant value for about 5 hrs, about 15 hrsand >20 hrs respectively. For compound concentrations at 3.125microgram/ml and 6.25 microgram/ml, the cell index started to increaseafter about 5 hrs and about 15 hrs following compound addition. For thecompound concentration of 25 microgram/ml, there was a gradual, yet slowdecrease in the cell index after compound addition. For the compoundconcentration of 50 microgram/ml, there was an about 10 hr time periodover which the cell index remained near-constant, and after that, thecell index decreased steadily.

FIG. 7 shows dynamic drug response curves of A549 cells treated withdoxorubicin. 10,000 A549 cells were seeded into each well of a 16×device. The device was positioned on a device station that was locatedin an incubator maintaining conditions of 37 degrees C. and 5% CO₂. Cellattachment and cell growth were monitored on a cell-substrate impedancesystem in real time before treatment by monitoring impedance at regularintervals. When the cells were in exponential growth phase, doxorubicinat different concentrations was added to the wells. The same volume ofthe solvent used to dissolve the drug was added to some wells as acontrol. The time, and drug dose dependent cell response (calculated ascell index) to doxorubicin was recorded in real time on thecell-substrate impedance monitoring system as shown in this figure.

D.4. Real-Time Cell Based Assays to Identify a Compound Capable ofInteracting with a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR)

The methods described in the present invention may be applied toidentifying one or more compounds that are capable of interacting with aG-protein coupled receptor. More specifically the methods may be appliedto identify compounds that affect a GPCR such as but not limited tostimulation or inhibition of the GPCR. The methods may identify GPCRagonists, inverse agonists, antagonists and the like. The methods of thepresent invention may be used to identify compounds that affect knownGPCRs and orphan GPCRs.

The present invention includes cell-impedance technology to assess andquantify the morphological changes that occur in cells or cell linesthat are expressing appropriate GPCR in response to their cognate ligandor agonist using cell-substrate impedance technology. It has been shownthat multiple GPCRs and GPCR-mediated signaling pathways converge uponand induce rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton at the periphery oran increase in stress fiber formation. GPCR-mediated actin cytoskeletonrearrangement has been shown to be mediated by activation of tyrosinekinases and members of the rho family of GTPases (Luttrel, L M. Mol Cell(2002) 9:1152-4.). We have utilized the cell shape changes (the changesin cell morphology) that occur as a result of GPCR-mediatedrearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton as readout for GPCR functionusing cell-substrate impedance technology.

In one aspect, the present invention is directed at a method to screenfor natural ligands or agonists of the appropriate GPCR utilizingelectronic measurement and sensing of cells. One approach for electronicmeasurement of cells is based on the measurement of cell-substrate orcell-electrode impedances. The approach features in the integration ofcell biology with microelectronics and is based on the electronicdetection of biological assay process. The details of this cellelectronic sensing technology, called real-time cell electronic sensing(RT-CES), and associated devices, systems and methods of use have beenprovided in, PCT application number PCT/US03/22557, titled “Impedancebased devices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Jul. 18, 2003;U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/705,447, titled “Impedance baseddevices and methods for use in assays”, filed on Nov. 10, 2003; PCTApplication No. PCT/US04/037696, entitled “Real time electronic cellsensing system and application for cell based assays”, filed on Nov. 12,2004; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/987,732, entitled “Real timeelectronic cell sensing system and application for cell based assays”filed Nov. 12, 2004; PCT Application No. PCT/US05/004481, entitled “Realtime electronic cell sensing system and applications for cytotoxicityprofiling and compound assays”, filed on Feb. 9, 2005; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/055,639, entitled “Real time electronic cellsensing system and applications for cytotoxicity profiling and compoundassays” filed Feb. 9, 2005. All the above applications are incorporatedby reference.

For measurement of cell-substrate or cell-electrode impedance usingRT-CES technology, microelectrodes having appropriate geometries arefabricated onto the bottom surfaces of microtiter plate or similardevice, facing into the wells. Cells are introduced into the wells ofthe devices, and make contact to and attach to the electrode surfaces.The presence, absence or change of properties of cells affects theelectronic and ionic passage on the electrode sensor surfaces. Measuringthe impedance between or among electrodes provides important informationabout biological status of cells present on the sensors. When there arechanges to the biological status of the cells analogue electronicreadout signals are measured automatically and in real time, and areconverted to digital signals for processing and for analysis. In aRT-CES system, a cell index is automatically derived and provided basedon measured electrode impedance values. The cell index obtained for agiven well reflects: 1) how many cells are attached to the electrodesurfaces in this well, 2) how well cells are attached to the electrodesurfaces in this well. Thus, the more the cells of same type in similarphysiological conditions attach the electrode surfaces, the larger thecell index. And, the better the cells attach to the electrode surfaces(e.g., the cells spread-out more to have larger contact areas, or thecells attach tighter to electrode surfaces), the larger the cell index.

The method of the present invention is to screen for ligands or agonistsof GPCR being expressed by appropriate cell lines using measurement ofcell-substrate impendence. The method is based on quantification in realtime of the cytoskeletal changes and/or morphological changes that ariseas a response to ligand or agonist binding to the exogenous orendogenous GPCR being expressed on the surface of an appropriate cellline or primary cells. Because the electronic assay readout relies oncytoskeletal dynamics and/or cell morphology and/or cell adhesionproperty, all of which are intrinsic cell responses to the activatedGPCR, it precludes the need for establishing reporter cell lines orusing any other reagent. Furthermore, since the assay is performed inreal time, multiple treatments can be performed within the sameexperiment and receptor desensitization can be assessed.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to method to useelectronic impedance technology to screen for potential antagonists ofGPCR expressed by an appropriate cell line and activated by a knownligand.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to method to useelectronic impedance technology for target validation purposes of keyenzymes and proteins involved in the signaling pathway leading initiatedby the activation of the GPCR expressed and displayed at the cellsurface.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to method to useelectronic impedance technology for screening of small molecularinhibitors of key enzymes and proteins involved in the signaling pathwayleading from binding and activation of the GPCR at the cell surface.

For example, the present invention provides a method of identifying acompound capable of interacting with a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR)including: (a) providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrateimpedance; wherein the device comprises at least two wells, furtherwherein the device is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b)adding test cells to at least two wells, wherein the test cells expressa GPCR; (c) measuring first impedances of the at least two wellsimmediately preceding step (d) and optionally determining first cellindices from the first impedances; (e) adding a compound to at least onewell containing the test cells to form at least one compound well andadding a vehicle control to at least another well containing test cellsto form at least one control well; (f) measuring second impedances ofthe at least one compound well and of the at least one control wellafter step (d) and optionally determining second cell indices from thesecond impedances; (g) determining the change in the impedance or cellindex for the at least one compound well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one compound well tothe first impedance or the first cell index of the at least one compoundwell, and determining the change in the impedance or cell index of theat least one control well by comparing the second impedance or thesecond cell index of the at least one control well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one control well; (h)comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well; and (i) identifying thecompound interacts with the GPCR if the comparison demonstrates asignificant difference between the change in impedance or cell index ofthe at least one compound well and the change in impedance or cell indexof the at least one control well.

Devices for Measuring Cell-Substrate Impedance

The devices used with the present invention include devices capable ofmeasuring or monitoring cell-substrate impedance. The cell-substrate (orcell-electrode) impedance is related to not only to the number of thecells but also to the morphology and adhesion quality of the cells onthe electrode surfaces. The higher the cell number on the electrodesurface is, the larger the cell-substrate impedance (resistance).Similarly, the more spread out the cells are on the electrode surfaces,the larger the cell-substrate impedance (resistance). Likewise, thetighter the cell adhesion to the electrode surfaces, the larger thecell-substrate impedances (resistance). In one aspect of the presentinvention, the methods are provided for monitoring the activation ofGPCR or RTK in living cells based on a change in cell morphology and/orcell adhesion occurred when GPCR or RTK are activated.

Examples of suitable devices for monitoring or measuring cell-substrateimpedance are previously described in the present application. Inpreferred embodiments the devices frequently contain at least two wells,at least one well forming a test well or a compound well and at leastone well forming a control well or a confirmation well. One skilled inthe art would recognize that multiple wells may be utilized for one ormore assays. For example the device may be in the format of a multi-wellplate. In this embodiment multiple assays may be performedsimultaneously. Each of the wells may contain a conductive electrodearray. As a non-limiting example, a multi-well plate usable with thepresent invention may be a 16 well plate, a 24 well plate, a 96 wellplate, a 384 well plate, and a 1536 well plate.

As another nonlimiting example, a device capable of monitoring ormeasuring substrate impedance may include but is not limited to anonconducting substrate, two or more electrode arrays fabricated on thesubstrate, wherein each of the two or more electrode arrays includes twoelectrode structures; the two or more wells on the substrate, whereineach of the two or more arrays is associated with one of the two or morewells, and at least two connection-pads, each of which is located on anedge of the substrate, wherein for each of the two or more electrodearrays, each of the two electrode structures includes multiple electrodeelements and the first of the two electrode structures of each of the atleast two electrode arrays is connected to one of the at least twoconnection pads, and the second of the two electrode structures of eachof the at least two electrode arrays is connected to another of the atleast two connection pads, further wherein at least two of the two ormore electrode arrays share one common connection pad, further whereineach electrode array has an approximately uniform electrode resistancedistribution across the entire array, and further wherein said substratehas a surface suitable for cell attachment or growth, wherein the cellattachment or growth on the substrate can result in a detectable changein impedance between or among the electrode structures within eachelectrode array.

The GPCR Superfamily

The present invention may be used to identify compounds that affect avariety of GPCRs. The human genome project has identified a number ofproteins which can be categorized into GPCRs based on sequence. Thenumber of GPCRs encoded by the human genome is estimated to be between800-1000 and thus far approximately 650 GPCR have been identified fromthe effort of the human genome project, 200 of which are classified asknown GPCRs because the activating ligands for these receptors are known(Nambi, P and Nambi, A. Assay and Drug Development Technologies (2003)1, 305-310). The remaining receptors for which the ligands are not knownare considered “orphan receptors” and they are the subject of intensescrutiny as potential medically relevant targets. There are a number ofin vitro and cell-based assays available which are used to screen forpotential agonist or antagonist of GPCRs. The in vitro assays are basedon binding studies with labeled ligand and receptor. (Nambi, P andNambi, A. Assay and Drug Development Technologies (2003) 1, 305-310) Thecell-based assays are based on engineering cell lines to expressexogenous GPCRs alone or together with a reporter plasmid. Calciumsensitive dyes have been used extensively to screen for GPCRs thatincrease intracellular calcium levels in response to agonists challenge.Alternatively, a fluorescent or luminescent-based reporter assayco-transfected with the appropriate GPCR and G-protein has also beenused to identify potential agonists or antagonists of the transfectedGPCR (Nambi, P and Nambi, A. Assay and Drug Development Technologies(2003) 1, 305-310). While these assays are extremely useful in highthroughput screening to identify potential agonists and antagonists,they do involve pre-labeling the cells with fluorescent dyes in the caseof calcium-based assays or lysing the cells to measure the activity ofreporter genes.

The present invention addresses a variety of difficulties in identifyingcompounds that affect GPCRs or the GPCR pathway. As a nonlimitingexample, the present invention is useable with a recombinant GPCR, anendogenous GPCR, an orphan GPCR, a constitutively active GPCR, achimeric GPCR, or other chimeric receptors containing a GPCR property.

Test Cells

The present invention refers to adding test cells to at least one wellof a device capable of monitoring or measuring cell-substrate impedance.Test cells refer to cells that express the receptor of interest. In theinstance of the methods of identifying a compound that affects a GPCR,the test cells would express the GPCR of interest Test cells may expressa variety of receptors such as but not limited to a recombinant GPCR, anendogenous GPCR, an orphan GPCR, a constitutively active GPCR, achimeric GPCR, or other chimeric receptors containing a GPCR property.

Test cells may be added to the wells using any suitable method known inthe biological arts for cell transfer or high throughput cell transfersuch as but not limited to aliquoting, pipeting or transferring cells.Test cells may be added at a predetermined concentration or not.

Compound Added to Test Wells

The present invention includes adding one or more compounds to testcells, control cells and the like to determine the effect of thecompound on a GPCR or GPCR pathway. A well containing a compound may bereferred to as a compound well for clarity. The compound may be aparticular compound of interest or may be a compound from a library ofcompounds. As nonlimiting examples, the compound may be believed to be apotential ligand, an agonist, an inverse agonist or an antagonist orinhibitor for a GPCR. The compound may be added at a singleconcentration or at a variety of concentrations. In some embodimentdose-response curves are obtained by adding a compound in more than oneconcentration and correlating the response in cell-substrate impedanceor a cell index (as obtained from the cell-substrate impedancemeasurement) to the compound concentration. Cell responses to a compoundmay result in a change (for example, increase or decrease) incell-substrate impedance or in cell index. Furthermore, the EC50 or IC50of a compound may be determined by identifying the concentration ofcompound that results in approximately 50% of maximum responses incell-substrate impedance or cell index.

Measuring or Monitoring Impedance (Cell-Substrate Impedance)

The present invention monitors impedance over time while adding one ormore compounds to test cells, control cells, confirmation cells and thelike. As previously described impedance may be monitored continually orat desired time intervals or time points. In some embodiments, thepresent invention describes an impedance as a first impedance, a secondimpedance, a third impedance and the like. Each of the referencedimpedance measurements may be a single impedance measurement or a seriesof impedance measurements. For example a first impedance measurement maybe taken after adding test cells to at least two wells and before addinga compound or a vehicle control to the wells. In this instance the firstimpedance measurement may function as a type of control to determine thechange in impedance of a single well upon the addition of a compound orvehicle control. Thus, multiple impedance measurements may be takenprior to adding a compound, and may be referred to as a first impedancemeasurement. Since a cell index may be determined for an impedancemeasurement, a series of cell indexes (i.e., cell indices) may bedetermined corresponding to the series of impedance measurements, whereeach of the first cell indexes corresponds to a distinct impedancemeasurement. Similarly, a second impedance may be measured or monitoredafter adding a compound to the at least one well containing a test cell(frequently referred to as forming a compound well). In this instance,the second impedance measures the cellular response or detects changescorresponding to the addition of a compound. The second impedancemeasurement may therefore reflect an impedance measurement at a timepoint after addition of a compound. Depending on the desired assay, thesecond impedance measurement may contain one or more measurements. Aseries of three or more impedance measurements at three or more timepoints may be performed to provide a time-dependent, impedance curve orcell index curve that may depict the time dependent changes to the testcells or control cells due to the addition of the compound (or maybe dueto the interaction of the compound with a GPCR). When multiplemeasurements at multiple time-points are taken or the impedance isroutinely monitored, a peak in cell-substrate impedance (cell-substrateresistance) or a peak in cell index or a peak in normalized cell indexor a peak in delta cell index may be identified. The peak may be amaximum or a minimum impedance (e.g. resistance) out of all theimpedance values measured after addition of the compound. Or, the peakmay be a maximum change (e.g, relative change or absolute change) incell-substrate impedance with respect to the impedance before additionof the compound. Or the peak may be a maximum change in cell index ornormalized cell index or delta cell index out of all the cell indexes ornormalized cell indexes determined from the measurement ofcell-substrate impedance after addition of the compound. For eachconcentration of the compound, such a peak may be identified and may beplotted versus the compound concentration to determine a dose-responsecurve. Thus, the second impedance measurement may be a series ofimpedance measurements optionally taken to identify a dose curve.Alternatively, the area under the cell-index or impedance curve for eachconcentration of the compound can also be determined and used ingenerating a dose-response curve. Here cell-index curve or impedancecurve refers to time-dependent cell-index (or time-dependent impedance)plotted versus time after addition of the compound. In a nonlimitingexample, the second impedance may be taken at a time point including butnot limited to a time point such as more than 1 minute, more than 5minute, more than 30 minute, more than 1 hour, more than 2 hours, morethan 5 hours, more than 10 hours, and more than 24 hours after addingthe compound or vehicle control.

Measuring or monitoring impedance at a given time point does not meanthat the impedance-measurement took place at a single time moment.Indeed, measuring an impedance may take a short period of time, forexample, 1 second, or 100 milli-second, or one milli-seocnd, or a onemicro-second, or even less than one micro-second. Thus, such ameasurement time is not taken into account and measuring impedance at agiven time point may refer to a time point just before the startingmoment of the impedance measurement, or just after the end of theimpedance measurement, or any time moment in between.

Impedance may be monitored using the methods previously disclosed in thepresent application. Monitoring impedance may include performing one ormore impedance measurements at one or more time points or a series ofmeasurements at a series of time points. Monitoring impedance mayinclude performing impedance measurements at multiple frequencies.Impedance measurement includes the measurement of resistance and/orreactance. Depending on the desired assay, impedance may be monitored ormeasured at regular or irregular time intervals during an assay period.

In some embodiments an impedance measurement is performed at a timepoint or time points before adding a compound or a vehicle control orimmediately prior to adding a compound or a vehicle control to thecells. In one exemplary embodiment, impedance measurement may beperformed at a time point of less than less than 30 minutes, less than 1hour, less than 2 hours, less than 4 hours, or less than 10 hours, orless than 24 hours, or other time length prior to adding a compound orvehicle control to the cells. In another exemplary embodiment, impedancemeasurement may be performed at a time point immediately preceding orprior to adding a compound or a vehicle control, such as less than 20minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 5 minutes, less than 2 minutes,or less than 1 minute prior to adding the compound or vehicle control. Avehicle control in this context refers to a medium or solution orsolvent that has the same composition as the medium or solution orsolvent in which a test compound is placed, but without the testcompound.

In still another exemplary embodiment, impedance measurement may beperformed at regular or irregular time intervals prior to addition of atest compound or a vehicle control. As can be envisioned, a series oftwo, three, four or more measurements may be desired after adding acompound. In one exemplary embodiment, impedance measurement may beperformed at regular time intervals (for example, every 15 seconds, orevery minute, or every 15 minutes) after adding a compound. In anotherexemplary embodiment, impedance measurement may be performed atirregular time intervals (for example, initially every 2 minutes up to 1hour and followed by every 30 minutes up to 24 hours) after adding acompound. In still another exemplary embodiment, impedance measurementmay be performed at a time point of more than 15 seconds, more than 1minute, more than 5 minute, more than 30 minutes, more than 1 hour, morethan 2 hours, more than 5 hours, more than 10 hours after adding acompound.

A method of the present invention is to identify a compound capable ofinteracting with a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) in test cells usingmeasurement of cell-substrate impedance. It is based on impedance-basedquantification of change in cell morphology (and/or cell adhesion) whicharise as a response to compound interacting with (for example, bindingto) a GPCR, causing cellular changes, including but not limitedcytoskeleton re-arrangement. Because the impedance readout relies on theinteraction of the test cells with the sensor electrodes, the change incell morphology and or cell adhesion due to the compound interactingwith a GPCR leads to a time-dependent change (for example, increase ordecrease) in the cell-substrate impedance which correlates with theinteraction of the compound with the GPCR, or with GPCR activation.

Determining Cell Index

The methods of the present invention may include comparing one or moreimpedance measurements or comparing one or more cell indices (i.e., cellindexes) or cell index values. In one embodiment, a cell index isdetermined by calculating, for each measurement frequency, therelative-change in resistance (a component of impedance) of a well whenthe cells are present in the well with respect to that of the well whenno cell is present, and then finding the maximum relative-change inresistance for all frequencies measured. The maximum relative-change inresistance is used as cell index (see equation (4) in Section C. Methodsfor Calculating Cell Index (CI) and Cell Change Index (CCI) of thepresent invention). If impedance is measured at a single frequency, thenthe relative change in resistance (a component of impedance) of a wellwhen compounds are present in the well with respect to that of the wellwhen no compound is present, or when only test cells or only controlcells are present. Other methods for calculating cell index have beendisclosed in a previous Section C. Methods for Calculating Cell Index(CI) and Cell Change Index (CCI). Since the cell index or cell indexescorrespond to an impedance measurement or impedance measurements, thepresent invention envisions comparing cell indexes for the same wellmeasured at different time points to determine a change in cell index.For example, one may compare cell indexes derived at time points beforeand after adding a compound that interacts with or is suspected tointeract with a GPCR in the cells to determine the change in cell indexas a result of adding the compound. The present invention also envisionscomparing changes in cell indexes between different wells, for example,a compound well and a control well. As with impedance measurements, afirst cell index may be one or more cell indexes, a second cell indexmay be one or more cell indexes, a third cell index may be one or morecell indexes and the like. When determining a series of cell indexes, asingle cell index may be utilized for a distinct cell impedance orimpedance measurement.

As previously demonstrated, cell indexes may be normalized forcomparison. Normalization may take into account the number of cells in aparticular well, variables in detecting impedance and the like. Althoughmethods of normalization may vary, in some embodiments, thenormalization is performed at a time point a short time before doing atreatment on cells, for example, adding compound or a vehicle control.As nonlimiting examples, a short time may be less than 1 minute, lessthan 2 minutes, less than 5 minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 30minutes, less than 1 hour, less than 2 hours, less than 5 hours, lessthan 10 hours and less than 24 hours.

Determining Changes in Impedance or Cell Index

The present invention compares one or more impedance measurements andoptionally determining a cell index before and after adding a compoundsuspected of being capable of affecting a GPCR. In preferred embodimentsthe change in impedance of a single well is determined. As nonlimitingexamples, a change in impedance may be determined for a compound well, atest well, a control well, a confirmation well and the like. Determiningthe change in impedance may be performed by comparing a second impedanceor second cell index of a particular well measured or derived at asecond time point to the first impedance or first cell index of the samewell measured or derived at a first time point.

In one embodiment of the methods of the present invention, the change inimpedance or cell index may be derived by subtracting the firstimpedance or first cell index of a particular well measured at a firsttime point from the second impedance or second cell index of the samewell measured at a second time point. The change in impedance or cellindex derived this way is referred as “absolute change” in impedances orcell indices (cell indexes). In one example of this embodiment, aparticular well is a compound well, the first time point is a time pointimmediately preceding adding a compound to the cells in the compoundwell and the second time point is a time point after adding thecompound. For this example, the “absolute” change in impedance or cellindex for the compound well reflects the cell responses to the additionof the compound. In another example of this embodiment, a particularwell is a control well, the first time point is a time point immediatelypreceding adding a vehicle control to the cells in the control well andthe second time point is a time point after adding the vehicle control.For this example, the “absolute” change in impedance or cell index forthe control well reflects the cell responses to the addition of thevehicle control. The absolute change in cell index may also be referredas “delta cell index” if the first time point is a standard time pointand the cell index at the standard time point is used for calculating“absolute change in cell index” for multiple second time points.Furthermore, cell index in embodiment here may be a normalized cellindex.

In another embodiment of the methods of the present invention, thechange in impedance or cell index may be derived by two subsequentsteps: (1) determining “absolute change” in impedances or cell indexesby subtracting the first impedance or first cell index of a particularwell measured at a first time point from the second impedance or secondcell index of the same well measured at a second time point; (2)dividing the “absolute change” in impedance or cell indexes by the firstimpedance or cell index of the same well measured at the first timepoint. The change in impedances or cell indices (cell indexes) derivedthis way is referred as “relative change” in impedances or cell indexes.In one example of this embodiment, a particular well is a compound well,the first time point is a time point immediately preceding adding acompound to the cells in the compound well and the second time point isa time point after adding the compound. For this example, the “relative”change in impedance or cell index for the compound well reflects thecell responses to the addition of the compound. In another example ofthis embodiment, a particular well is a control well, the first timepoint is a time point immediately preceding adding a vehicle control tothe cells in the control well and the second time point is a time pointafter adding the vehicle control. For this example, the “relative”change in impedance or cell index for the control well reflects the cellresponses to the addition of the vehicle control.

As described previously in the present invention, monitoring impedancemay include performing impedance measurements at multiple frequencies.Impedance measurement includes the measurement of resistance and/orreactance. Thus, a change in impedance may refer to a change inimpedance at a particular measurement frequency, or may refer to amaximum change in impedance for multiple measurement frequencies, or mayrefer other parameters that may be derived from the change in thefrequency spectrum of the impedance. Furthermore, a change in impedancemay be a change in resistance, or reactance, or resistance andreactance.

Comparing Changes in Impedance or Cell Index

Changes in impedance or cell index are compared between test samples andcontrol samples. For example, a change in impedance or cell index for acompound well as a result of adding a compound to the cells in thecompound well may be compared to the change in impedance or cell indexfor a control well as a result of adding a vehicle control to the cellsin the control well. If such a comparison demonstrates a significantdifference (for example, more than 0.5%, or more than 1%, or more than10%) between the compound well and the control well, then change inimpedance or cell index for the compound well is significantly differentfrom the change in impedance or cell index for the control well. We mayidentify that the compound may interact with the cells. If the cellsexpress a GPCR, we may identify that the compound may interact with theGPCR in the cells.

In another example, a change in impedance or cell index for a test wellas a result of adding a compound to the test cells in the test well maybe compared to the change in impedance or cell index for a control wellas a result of adding the same compound to the control cells in thecontrol well. If such a comparison demonstrates a significant difference(for example, more than 0.5%, or more than 1%, or more than 10%) betweenthe test well and the control well, then change in impedance or cellindex for the test well is significantly different from the change inimpedance or cell index for the control well. We may identify that thecompound may interact with the test cells differently from theinteraction of the compound with the control cells. If the test cellsexpress a GPCR whilst the control cells do not express the GPCR orexpress the GPCR at a significantly lesser level than the test cells, wemay identify that the compound may interact with the GPCR in the testcells.

In another example, a change in impedance or cell index for a test wellas a result of adding a compound to the test cells in the test well maybe compared to the change in impedance or cell index for a confirmationwell as a result of adding a vehicle control to the test cells in theconfirmation well. In still another example, a change in impedance orcell index may be compared between multiple compound wells such asmultiple compound wells containing the compound at a variety ofdilutions or concentrations.

Identifying Compounds of Interest

Compounds that interact with GPCRs are identified by determining whichcompound(s) cause significant changes impedance or cell index. Forexample, when screening or identifying a compound capable of affecting aGPCR, a compound may be identified if a significant change is observedbetween the change in impedance or cell index of the compound well incomparison to the change in impedance or cell index of a control well.Here both compound well and control well have the same test cellsexpressing a GPCR. The compound is added to the compound well whilst avehicle control is added to the control well. For the compound well, thechange in impedance or cell index refer to the change occurred afteradding the compound. For the control well, the change in impedance orcell index refer to the change occurred after adding the vehiclecontrol. As a nonlimiting example, a compound may be identified as anagonist to a GPCR if the comparison indicates a significant changeincluding an increase or a decrease in impedance or cell index for thecompound well after the compound is added to the test cells that expressthe GPCR, as relative to the control well. A compound may be identifiedas an inverse agonist if the comparison indicates a significant changeincluding a decrease or increase in impedance or cell index for thecompound well after the compound is added as relative to the controlwell, and the significant change in impedance or cell index for thecompound well is in the OPPOSITE direction compared to the change of aknown agonist. For example, a known agonist of a GPCR may result in asignificant increase in impedance or cell index after addition of theagonist to the cells expressing the GPCR. For this GPCR in the samecells, a compound is identified as an inverse agonist if the compoundresults in a significant decrease in impedance or cell index afteraddition of the compound. In another example, an agonist may result in asignificant decrease in impedance or cell index and an inverse agonistmay result in a significant increase in impedance or cell index.

As previously disclosed in the present invention, compounds may be addedto multiple wells to determine a dose curve or dose response curve. Eachconcentration of a compound results in a change in impedance or cellindex after addition of the compound. Such a change in impedance or cellindex may be determined or derived at multiple time points. Thus, atime-dependent chance of impedance or cell index (a trace of impedancechange or a trace in cell index change) may be derived for eachconcentration of the compound. To provide a dose-response curve, one maydefine or derive a single parameter to reflect the cellular response orcellular change for each concentration of the compound. In one preferredembodiment a single parameter for reflecting the cellular response orcellular changes is the maximum change in impedance (resistance) or cellindex after addition of the compound and a dose-response curve may beconstructed by plotting a maximum change in impedance or cell index foreach concentration of the compound versus the concentration of thecompound. In another embodiment, the area under the cell-index orimpedance curve for each concentration of the compound may also bedetermined and used in generating a dose-response curve. Here cell-indexcurve or impedance curve refers to time dependent cell-index (or timedependent impedance) plotted versus time after addition of the compound.

In another preferred embodiment, the single parameter for reflecting thecellular response or cellular change is a change in impedance or cellindex at one particular time point after the compound addition. Thisparticular time point may correspond to the time point at which amaximum change in impedance or cell index for the highest concentrationof the compound occurs.

With a dose-response curve or a dose curve, one may be able to deriveEC50 or IC50 of a compound. In one embodiment, an EC50 is aconcentration of a compound capable of inducing 50% of the maximumresponse in impedance or cell index. The maximum response in impedanceor cell index refers to the maximum change in cell impedance or cellindex for all concentrations of the compound, as derived from thedose-response curve or dose curve. Various formula or methods may beused to derive EC50 or IC50 from a dose response curve for a compound.Those skilled in biostatistics or in the analysis of biological data mayreadily choose appropriate formula or methods to calculate an EC50 orIC50 from a dose curve. For example, experimental dose curve may befitted into a sigmoid curve and an EC50 or IC50 may be derived from thecurve fitting.

Alternative Methods of Identifying Compounds that Affect the GPCR

The present invention includes a method of identifying a compoundcapable of interacting with a G-Protein Coupled-Receptor (GPCR)including: (a) providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrateimpedance; wherein the device comprises at least two wells, furtherwherein the device is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b)adding test cells to at least one of the at least two wells to form atleast one test well, and adding control cells to at least another wellto form at least one control well, wherein the test cells express a GPCRand the control cells do not express the GPCR or express the GPCR at asignificantly lesser level that the test cells; (c) measuring firstimpedances of the at least one test well and of the at least one controlwell immediately preceding step (d) and optionally determining firstcell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compound to the atleast one test well and to the at least one control well; (e) measuringsecond impedances from the at least one test well and from the at leastone control well after step (d) and optionally determining second cellindices from the second impedances; (f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index of the at least one test well by comparing thesecond impedance or the second cell index of the at least one test wellto the first impedance or the first cell index of the at least one testwell, and determining the change in the impedance or cell index of theat least one control well by comparing the second impedance or thesecond cell index of the at least one control well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one control well; (g)comparing the changes in impedance or in cell index between the at leastone test well and the at least one control well; and (h) identifying thecompound interacts with the GPCR if the comparison demonstrates asignificant difference between the change in impedance or cell index forthe at least one test well and the change in impedance or cell index forthe at least one control well.

Compounds that interact with GPCRs are identified by determining whichcompound(s) cause significant changes in impedance or cell index. Forexample, when screening or identifying a compound capable of affecting aGPCR, a compound may be identified if a significant change is observedbetween the change in impedance or cell index of the test well incomparison to the change in impedance or cell index of a control well.Here test well has the test cells expressing a GPCR and control well hascontrol cells not expressing the GPCR or expressing GPCR at asignificantly low level. The compound is added to both the test well andthe control well. For the test well, the change in impedance or cellindex refer to the change occurred after adding the compound to the testcells. For the control well, the change in impedance or cell index referto the change occurred after adding the compound to the control cells.As a nonlimiting example, a compound may be identified as an agonist toa GPCR if the comparison indicates a significant change including anincrease or a decrease in impedance or cell index of the test well afterthe compound is added to the test cells that express the GPCR, asrelative to the control well. A compound may be identified as an inverseagonist if the comparison indicates a significant change including adecrease or increase in impedance or cell index of the test well afterthe compound is added as relative to the control well, and thesignificant change in impedance or cell index for the test well is inthe OPPOSITE direction compared to the change of a known agonist. Forexample, a known agonist of a GPCR may result in a significant increasein impedance or cell index after addition of the agonist to the cellsexpressing the GPCR. For this GPCR in the same cells, a compound isidentified as an inverse agonist if the compound results in asignificant decrease in impedance or cell index after addition of thecompound. In another example, an agonist may result in a significantdecrease in impedance or cell index and an inverse agonist may result ina significant increase in impedance or cell index.

The provided methods have particular utility to identifying agonists orantagonists for orphan GPCRs. As provided earlier it is predicted thatthere are between 800-1000 potential GPCR that are coded by the genomeand only 200 of which have known ligands. Therefore, in order toidentify potentially relevant pharmaceutical targets the pharmaceuticalindustry has invested extensively in trying to identify the ligands forthe orphan GPCR. The present invention provides methods to screen forpotential ligands or agonist of an orphan GPCR using-substrate impedancetechnology. The methods may include test cells engineered to express theappropriate orphan GPCR seeded in either ACEA's 16× or 96× microtiterplates (E-Plates) at a pre-determined cell density, treating the testcells with appropriate ligand concentration from a ligand library orwith potential agonist using a compound library. As a control cells thatare not expressing the receptor may also be treated with the ligands orpotential agonist library. The transient morphological changes of thecells due to ligand or agonist stimulation may be electronicallymonitored using the RT-CES system. Plotting the ligand concentrationagainst the maximal change in cell-substrate impedance response ormaximal change in cell index at each ligand concentration will result ina dose-response curve. The maximal change in this context refers to themaximum change in impedance (resistance) or cell index after addition ofthe compound with respect to the impedance or cell index before addingthe compound. Alternatively, the area under the cell-index curve orimpedance curve for each concentration of the ligand or agonist can alsobe determined and used in generating a dose-response curve. Thecell-index curve or impedance curve refers to time dependent cell-index(or time dependent impedance) plotted versus time after addition of theligand or agonist. The dose-response curve can be used to calculate theEC50 value, which is the molar concentration of the ligand or agonistthat produces half of the maximum biological response or half of themaximum response in impedance or cell index. The maximum response inimpedance or cell index refers to the maximum change in cell impedanceor cell index for all concentrations of the compound, as derived fromthe dose-response curve or dose curve. If the actual ligand for thereceptor is known, it may be used as a positive control in the assay andthe EC50 value of the potential agonists may be compared to the EC50 ofthe natural ligand. Compounds that do not induce any cell-electrodeimpedance response (with respect to the response of the control cells)will not be considered as agonists. Compounds that induce a response atthe concentration being screened may be further-evaluated at differentdoses to determine their relative EC50 value. Those compounds thatillicit an EC50 response which is equal to or less than that of thenatural ligand are considered as agonists. Also, compounds that do reachmaximum response even at much higher EC50 values may still be consideredas potential agonists. Compounds that only induce a partial response (afraction of the maximum response) may be considered as partial agonists.

Methods of Screening for an Antagonist for a G-Protein Coupled Receptor(GPCR) with a Known Ligand

The methods of the present invention may be adapted to screen for anantagonist for a GPCR with a known ligand. In these aspects andembodiments, impedance is measured before and after stimulation of theGPCR. The potential antagonist is added prior to stimulation of theGPCR. More specifically the present invention provides a method forscreening for an antagonist, including (a) providing a device capable ofmeasuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises atleast two wells, further wherein the device is operably connected to animpedance analyzer; (b) adding test cells to each of at least two of theat least two wells, wherein the test cells express a GPCR; (c) adding acompound suspected of being a GPCR antagonist to at least one of the atleast two wells to form at least one compound well, adding a vehiclecontrol to at least another well of the at least two wells to form atleast one control well; (d) measuring first impedances of the at leastone compound well and the at least one control well immediatelypreceding step (e), and optionally determining first cell indices (cellindexes) from the first impedances; (e) adding a GPCR ligand to the atleast one compound well and to the at least one control well; (f)measuring second impedances of the at least one compound well and the atleast one control well after step e) and optionally determining secondcell indices from the second impedances; (g) determining the change inthe impedance or cell index for the at least one compound well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone compound well to the first impedance or the first cell index of theat least one compound well, and determining the change in the impedanceor cell index of the at least one control well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one control well tothe first impedance or the first cell index of the the at least onecontrol well; (h) comparing the change in impedance or cell indexbetween the at least one compound well and the at least one controlwell; and (i) identifying the compound is an antagonist for the GPCR ifthe comparison demonstrates a significant difference between the changein impedance or cell index of the at least one compound well and thechange in impedance or cell index of the at least one control well.

In one embodiment of the above method, the method further compriseidentifying the compound as an antagonist for the GPCR if the change inimpedance or cell index of the at least one compound well issignificantly smaller than the change in impedance or cell index of theat least one control well. In another word, a compound is identified asan antagonist for the GPCR-if the compound inhibits or reduces theimpedance response of the cells to the stimulation of an agonist or aGPCR ligand.

In an exemplary embodiment, the method for screening for a potentialantagonist of GPCRs with known ligands using cell-substrate impedancetechnology may include the following steps. (1) Cells expressing theappropriate GPCR will be obtained or engineered to express theappropriate GPCR at adequate levels of expression. (2) The cells will beseeded on ACEA's 16× or 96× microtiter plates (E-Plates) at apredetermined concentration. The attachment and proliferation of thecells will be monitored continuously on the RT-CES system. (3) The cellswill be pre-incubated with a pre-determined concentration of potentialantagonists or compounds from a library and then stimulated with anappropriate amount of ligand or agonist that will result in optimalresponse on the RT-CES. As a control, the cells will be pre-incubatedwith vehicle alone and then stimulated with the appropriate ligand andalso the cells will be treated with the compounds, but not stimulatedwith the ligand or agonist. The cell response will be continuouslymonitored on the RT-CES. (4) An antagonist may be identified if (a) thecells pre-incubated with vehicle alone and then stimulated with theappropriate ligand give a significant change in impedance or cell indexas a result of ligand stimulation; (b) the cells pre-incubated with apotential antagonist and then stimulated with the appropriate ligandgives a significantly smaller change in impedance or cell index as aresult of ligand stimulation (i.e., the antagonoist reduces or inhibitsthe ligand-induced cell responses).

Once potential antagonists that block the agonist or ligand response hasbeen identified, the IC50 values of the potential antagonists, which arethe molar concentration of the antagonist which results in 50%inhibition of the maximal cell-electrode impedance response (i.e.,leading to that the maximal cell electrode impedance response is reducedby 50%), will be determined. The IC50 will be determined bypreincubating the cells which express the appropriate receptors withincreasing concentration of the potential antagonist and thenstimulating the cells with the appropriate ligand or agonist. As acontrol, the cells will only be incubated with media or vehicle alone.In addition, if there are any known antagonists for the receptor ofinterest, those may also be included in the assay as a positive control.Those compounds that block the agonist or ligand maximal response in adose dependent manner and cause the cells to return to baseline will beconsidered as potential antagonists. A dose response curve may beconstructed by plotting the ligand-induced or agonist-inducedcell-impedance response for cells pre-incubated with each concentrationof the potential antagonist versus concentration of the potentialantagonist. Alternatively, the area under the cell-index curve orimpedance curve for each concentration of the potential antagonist canalso be determined and used in generating a dose-response curve. Herecell-index curve or impedance curve refers to time dependent cell-index(or time dependent impedance) plotted versus time after addition of thecompound. The dose response curves may show that the potentialantagonist inhibits or reduces the ligand-induced (or agonist-induced)cell-substrate impedance responses in a dose-dependent manner. From sucha dose-response curve, IC50 may be derived or calculated. Those who areskilled in the biostatistics or in the analysis of biological data mayreadily choose appropriate formula or methods to calculate an IC50 froma dose-response curve of an antagonist. For example, experimental dosecurve may be fitted into a sigmoid curve and an IC50 may be derived fromthe curve fitting.

Methods of Identifying a Compound that Affects a G-Protein CoupledReceptor (GPCR) Pathway

The methods of the present invention may be adapted to screen oridentify a compound that affects a GPCR pathway. For example, thepresent invention provides a method of identifying a compound thataffects a GPCR pathway including: (a) providing a device capable ofmeasuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises atleast two wells, further wherein the device is operably connected to animpedance analyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least two of the atleast two wells, wherein the test cells express a GPCR; (c) adding acompound suspected of being capable of affecting a GPCR pathway to atleast one of the at least two wells containing the test cells to form atleast one compound well, adding a vehicle control to at least anotherwell of the at least two wells containing the test cells to form atleast one control well; (d) measuring first impedances of the at leastone compound well and the at least one control well immediatelypreceding step (e), and optionally determining first cell indices fromthe first impedances; (e) adding a GPCR activating compound to the atleast one compound well and to the at least one control well; (f)measuring second impedances of the at least one compound well and the atleast one control well after step (e) and optionally determining secondcell indices from the second impedances; (g) determining the change inthe impedance or cell index for the at least one compound well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone compound well to the first impedance or the first cell index of theat least one compound well, and determining the change in the impedanceor cell index of the at least one control well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one control well tothe first impedance or the first cell index of the at least one controlwell; (h) comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the atleast one compound well and the at least one control well; and (i)identifying the compound effects the GPCR pathway if the comparisondemonstrates a significant difference between the change in impedance orcell index of the at least one compound well and the change in impedanceor cell index of the at least one control well.

In one embodiment of the above method, the method further compriseidentifying the compound as an inhibitor for the GPCR pathway if thechange in impedance or cell index of the at least one compound well issignificantly smaller than the change in impedance or cell index of theat least one control well. In another word, a compound is identified asan inhibitor for the GPCR pathway if the compound inhibits or reducesthe impedance response of the cells to the stimulation of a GPRCactivating compound (for example, an agonist or a GPCR ligand). One maydetermine a dose-response curve for such a compound that is capable ofinhibiting GPCR pathway and determine the IC50 values using the approachsimilar to that used for deriving IC50 for an antagonist for a G-proteincoupled receptor (GPCR) with a known ligand described previously in thepresent invention.

Methods of Validating Molecular Targets Involved in the GPCR SignalingPathway Leading from GPCR Activation

The intracellular signaling pathway that is stimulated by activation ofthe GPCR by its cognate ligand leads to activation or inactivation ofkey enzymes such as kinases, phosphatases and phospholipases amongstothers, which may lend themselves as key potential targets forpharmaceutical drug discovery. However, prior to screening for potentialinhibitors of these target proteins and enzymes, the target proteins andenzymes must be validated to ascertain that they can interfere with theGPCR-mediated signaling.

This can be achieved either by introducing into cells expressing theappropriate GPCR by transfection, electroporation or viral infection theDNA encoding for the dominant negative versions of these signalingproteins or siRNA that target and reduce the expression of theseproteins or introducing known and specific inhibitors of key enzymes orproteins. Once this has been achieved, then the RT-CES system can beused to assess the effect of these key proteins on GPCR-mediatedsignaling. An example of a suitable assay includes introduce into cellseither the DNA for the dominant negative version of the protein, agenetic knockout or siRNA targeting the protein of interest by thevarious methods into cells which express the appropriate GPCR. The cellsmay be transferred to ACEA 16× or 96× microtiter plates and theattachment and growth of the cells monitored as previously described.Alternatively, the dominant interfering reagents can also be directlyintroduced into the cells in ACEA's 16× or 96× microtiter plates. Thecells may then be stimulated with appropriate ligand or agonist and thecellular response recorded by RT-CES™ system as previously described inthe present invention. If the GPCR-mediated events induced by the ligandor agonist are affected in these cell lines containing either the DNAfor the dominant negative version of the protein or siRNA targeting theprotein of interest, as determined from the impedance measurements, thenit means that interference with the function or expression of theprotein or enzyme of interest would prevent the GPCR-mediated event tooccur. Such proteins or enzymes will be considered as a potentialvalidated target for drug discovery and can also be confirmed by othercell-based assays.

The present invention also includes methods of validating moleculartargets involved in the GPCR signaling pathway leading from GPCRactivation including: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein the device comprises two or morewells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least one well to form a test welland adding confirmation cells to at least another well to form aconfirmation well, wherein the test cells express a GPCR and theconfirmation cells comprise (1) a dominant negative version of a proteinof interest, or (2) an siRNA targeting a protein of interest, (3) a geneknockout of a protein of interest, or (4) a chemical or proteininhibitor of the protein of interest; (c) measuring first impedances ofthe at least one test well and the at least one confirmation wellimmediately preceding step (d), and optionally determining first cellindices from the first impedances; (d) adding a GPCR activating compoundto the at least one test well and to the at least one confirmation well;(e) measuring second impedances of the at least one test well and the atleast one confirmation well after step (d) and optionally determiningsecond cell indices from the second impedances; (f) determining thechange in the impedance or cell index for the at least one test well bycomparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the at leastone test well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex of the at least one confirmation well by comparing the secondimpedance or the second cell index of the at least one confirmation wellto the first impedance or the first cell index of the at least oneconfirmation well; (g) comparing the change in impedance or cell indexbetween the at least one test well and the at least one confirmationwell; and (h) validating the protein of interest as a molecular targetif the comparison demonstrates a significant difference between thechange in impedance or cell index of the at least one test well and thechange in impedance or cell index of the at least one confirmation well.

A GPCR pathway may be activated using the appropriate activatingcompound. In one embodiment the activating compound is the appropriateGPCR ligand or GPCR agonist provided in an appropriate amount

Methods of Monitoring Dose-Dependent Functional Activation of a GPCR

The present invention also includes method of monitoring dose-dependentfunctional activation of a GPCR. The provided methods include (a)providing a device-capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance;wherein the device comprises at least two wells, further wherein thedevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding testcells to the at least two wells, wherein the test cells express a GPCR;(c) measuring first impedances from the at least two wells immediatelypreceding step (d) and optionally determining first cell indices fromthe first impedances; (d) adding a compound capable of activating theGPCR to at least two wells in at least at two different concentrationsforming compound wells 1 through x, wherein x equals the number of theat least two different concentrations; (e) measuring a series ofimpedances for each of the compound wells 1 through x after step (d) andoptionally determining a series of cell indices from the series ofimpedances, wherein the series comprise at least three impedancemeasurements; (f) determining the change in the impedance or cell indexfor each of the compound wells 1 through x by comparing the series ofimpedances or the series of cell indices for each of the compound wells1 through x to the first impedance or the first cell index of each wellcorresponding to the compound wells 1 through x; and (g) comparing thechanges in impedances or in cell indices between the compound wells 1through x at a given time point.

The provided methods may also include establishing a dose curve. Thedose curve may include a display of a series of different concentrationsversus a corresponding maximum change in impedance or cell index foreach of the provided concentrations, as derived from the time-dependentchanges in impedance or cell index after adding the compound at eachconcentration to the test cells. The EC50 of the compound may bedetermined from such dose curves. EC50 of a compound is a concentrationof the compound capable of inducing 50% of the maximum response inimpedance or cell index. The maximum response in impedance or cell indexrefers to the maximum change in cell impedance or cell index for allconcentrations of the compound, as derived from the dose-response curveor dose curve.

Methods of Determining Desensitization of a GPCR

The present invention also provides methods of determiningdesensitization of a GPCR. The methods may include: (a) providing adevice capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance of a test cellexpressing a GPCR, wherein the device comprises at least one well,further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to the at least one well, wherein thetest cells expresses a GPCR; (c) measuring a first impedance of the atleast one well immediately preceding step d) and optionally determininga first cell index; (d) introducing an agonist to the at least one well;(e) measuring a second impedance of the at least one well and optionallydetermining a second cell index; (f) comparing the second impedance orthe second cell index to the first impedance or the first cell index;(g) allowing the cell-substrate impedance to return about to the firstimpedance; (h) washing the test cells with an appropriate wash-solution;(i) introducing an agonist to the at least one well after the washingthe test cells; (j) measuring a third impedance of the at least one welland optionally determining a third cell index; (k) comparing the thirdimpedance or the third cell index to the first impedance or the firstcell index; (l) comparing the third impedance or the third cell index tothe second impedance or the second cell index; and (m) determining theGPCR is fully desensitized if the third impedance or the third cellindex does not significantly vary from the first impedance or the firstcell index, or determining the GPCR is not desensitized if the thirdimpedance or third cell index does not significantly vary from thesecond impedance or the second cell index, or determining the GPCR ispartially desensitized if the third impedance or third cell index doesvary from the first impedance or the first cell index.

In the above method of the present invention for determiningdesensitization of a GPCR, the method may further include repeatingsteps (h) through (m) if the GPCR is not fully desensitized.

In one embodiment of the above method of the present invention, if thethird impedance or cell index differs from the first impedance or cellindex by less than 5%, or 2%, or 1%, then the third impedance or cellindex does not significantly vary from the first impedance or cell indexand the GPCR is fully desensitized. In another embodiment of the abovemethod of the present invention, if the third impedance or cell indexdiffers from the second impedance or cell index by less than 5%, or 2%,or 1%, then the third impedance or cell index does not significantlyvary from the second impedance or cell index and the GPCR is notdesensitized. In one embodiment of the above method of the presentinvention, if the third impedance or cell index differs from the firstimpedance or cell index by more than 1%, more than 2%, more than 5%,then the third impedance or cell index does vary from the firstimpedance or cell index and the GPCR is partially desensitized. In stillanother embodiment, the GPCR is partially desensitized if the thirdimpedance or cell index does vary from the first impedance or cellindex, and the difference between the third impedance or cell index andthe first impedance or cell index is smaller in magnitude than thedifference between the second impedance or cell index and the firstimpedance or cell index.

D.5. Real-Time Cell Based Assays to Identify a Compound Capable ofInteracting with a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK)

The devices, methods and procedures described above for assaying GPCRactivation, for identifying a compound capable of interacting with aGPCR, for screening for an antagonist for a GPCR with a known ligand,for identifying a compound that affects a GPCR pathway, validatingmolecular targets involved in a GPCR signaling pathway leading from GPCRactivation or for monitoring dose-dependent functional activation of aGPCR, and for determining desensitization of a GPCR also apply to theassays for activation of a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK).

Methods of Identifying a Factor Capable of Interacting with a ReceptorTyrosine Kinase (RTK)

Over 500 different protein kinases have been identified, constituting˜1.7% of the human genome, of this 11% are known to be receptor tyrosinekinases (RTKS) (1). RTK and their growth factor ligands mediateimportant cellular processes including proliferation, survival,differentiation, metabolism, motility and gene expression. Loss ofregulation of RTK expression or activity has been implicated ininitiation and progression of cancer, inflammation, diabetes andcardiovascular disease. Their central role in these cellular processesand disease states has made RTK an attractive and important target forthe development of inhibitors as therapy for these diseases. Severalantibody and small molecule-based inhibitors specific for various RTKshave been approved by the FDA for the treatment of different cancers.

RTKs are membrane receptors that contain an intracellular kinase domain,which transfers a phosphate group from an ATP molecule to the hydroxylgroup on tyrosine residues. Upon ligand binding, RTKs dimerize oroligomerize resulting in autophosphorylation and increased activation ofits intrinsic kinase activity. This leads to phosphorylation of severaldownstream effector proteins resulting in activation of multiplesignaling pathways. These pathways include the activation of Ras/MAPK,phosphoinositide-3 kinase and PLC pathways. Another pathway activated asa result of growth factor binding to their cognate RTKs is thephosphorylation of effector proteins such as Src, Paxillin and FAK.Activation or phosphorylation of these proteins as a result of RTKactivation leads to cytoskeletal changes including membrane ruffling,lamelipodia and filopodia formation (2). These cellular changes as aresult of actin remodeling are mediated by the activities of smallGTPases Rac, Rho and Cdc42 (3).

ACEA Biosciences has developed a cell sensor array electrodes integratedon the bottom of the wells of microtiter plate (E-plate™). The sensorsare arrayed in a novel design that covers approximately 80% of the wellssurface area, allowing for sensitive and quantitative detection ofcellular changes. Signals from these sensors are relayed to a real timecell electronic sensing (RT-CES) system that allows for monitoring andanalysis of the kinetic aspects of cellular behavior. The signalsrelayed are impedance changes in the ionic environment created by theapplication of an electric field. Disruption of this ionic environmenton the sensor surface due to the presence of cells or changes in thecells morphology can lead to changes in measured impedance, which isthen converted to a cell index value. The extent of the cell-electrodeimpedance response is dependent on the attachment quality and the sensorarea covered by the cell. An increase in measured impedance value due toan increase in cell number or degree of attachment results in anincrease in observed cell index. This system has been successfully usedin monitoring cell proliferation and cytotoxicity, cell adhesion, andG-protein coupled receptor function.

It is known that growth factor binding to RTK results in immediatemorphological changes, as exemplified by membrane ruffling, filopodiaand lamellipodia formation. Using this technology we are able toquantitatively detect these cellular changes as a measure of receptortyrosine kinase activity and function. Characterization of thesemeasured cell response on the RT-CES system show that the response isspecific, robust, reproducible and in concurrence with other RTKcell-based assays, such as ELISA.

Therefore, the RT-CES system was used to screen a small diverse libraryof inhibitors and a collection of kinase inhibitors, enabling theidentification of a specific and potent EGFR inhibitor. This assay wasalso used to further characterize the hit by generating dose responsecurves. Compared to existing RTK assays, this assay does not suffer frominterference from assay components, nor require expensive reagents, suchas purified antibody or peptides. Furthermore, this assay platformprovides high content information regarding the signaling pathways beingactivated. Since the readout is non-invasive and carried out on livecells, multiple treatments can be carried out in the same well with thesame cells and can also be used in conjunction with existing endpointassays such as ELISA. The ACEA RT-CES system therefore offers analternative to or complements existing RTK assays, and can be used forboth primary and secondary screens.

Stimulation of receptor tyrosine kinases such as EGF receptor, PDGFreceptor, fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor, vascular endothelialgrowth factor (VEGF) receptor and c-Met receptor for hepatocyte growthfactor with their cognate ligand leads to dramatic remodeling of theactin cytoskeleton. These receptor tyrosine kinases have also beenlinked to the progression of different kinds of cancers. Because theRT-CES system can detect transient changes in morphology and adhesivecapacity of the cells, it can be used to monitor growth factor-inducedremodeling of actin cytoskeleton in adherent mammalian cells throughtheir associated receptor tyrosine kinase. The RT-CES assay provides aconvenient label-free, real-time and quantitative method for functionalactivation of the receptor tyrosine kinases.

The steps involved in using the RT-CES system for measurement ofcytoskeletal changes associated with receptor tyrosine kinase mayinclude: seeding adherent mammalian cells which are endogenouslyexpressing the appropriate receptor protein tyrosine kinase in the wellsof ACEA e-plate, alternatively, the receptor of interest can betransiently or stably expressed in an appropriate cell line and thenseeded in ACEA e-plate, monitor the growth and proliferation of thecells using the RT-CES system for approximately 16 hours, removing themedia from the wells and wash the cells once with phosphate bufferedsolution (PBS), replacing with media devoid of serum and allow the cellsto continue growth for an additional 8-20 hours, stimulating the cellswith the appropriate growth factor ligand for the receptor proteintyrosine kinase of interest. Monitor the morphological changes due toactin cytoskeleton remodeling every five minutes using the RT-CES systemfor a total of 5-6 hours.

In one aspect, the method of the present invention is to devise acell-based assay method for assaying receptor protein tyrosine kinaseactivity and also for screening for inhibitors of the receptor proteintyrosine kinase. The method is based on quantification in real time ofcytoskeletal changes and/or morphological change and/or cell adhesionchange that arise as a response to growth factor stimulation of itsassociated receptor on the surface of cells growing in the E-Plates.Because the electronic assay readout relies on cytoskeletal dynamicsand/or cell morphology and/or cell adhesion property which are intrinsiccell responses to stimulation of receptor protein tyrosine kinase itprecludes the need for establishing reporter cell lines or using anyother reagent. Furthermore, since the assay is performed in real time,the entire kinetics receptor protein tyrosine kinase activation and itseffect on the cell can be assessed.

The present invention also includes additional methods of identifying afactor capable of interacting with a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK).These methods may include: (a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises at least twowells, further wherein the device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; (b) adding test cells to at least two wells, wherein the testcells express a RTK either endogenously or as a recombinant protein; (c)measuring first impedances of the at least two wells immediatelypreceding step (d) and optionally determining first cell indices fromthe first impedances; (d) adding a compound suspected of being a factorcapable of interacting with a RTK to at least one well containing thetest cells to form at least one compound well and adding a vehiclecontrol to at least another well containing test cells to form at leastone control well; (e) measuring second impedances of the at least onecompound well and of the at least one control well after step (d) andoptionally determining second cell indices from the second impedance;(f) determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the atleast one-compound well by comparing the second impedance or the secondcell index of the at least one compound well to the first impedance orthe first cell index of the at least one compound well, and determiningthe change in the impedance or cell index for the at least one controlwell by comparing the second impedance or the second cell index of theat least one control well to the first impedance or the first cell indexof the at least one control well; (g) comparing the changes inimpedances or in cell indices between the at least one compound well andthe at least one control well; and (h) identifying the compound is afactor that interacts with the RTK if the comparison demonstrates asignificant difference between the change in impedance or cell index forthe at least one compound well and the change in impedance or cell indexfor the at least one control well.

In a preferred embodiment of the above method for identifying a factorcapable of interacting with a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), the testcells are in a serum free medium.

In one example of the above method, a compound may be identified as afactor capable of interacting with a receptor tyrosine kinase if asignificant change is observed between the change in impedance or cellindex of a compound well in comparison to the change in impedance orcell index of a control well. Here both compound well and control wellhave the same test cells expressing a RTK. The compound is added to thecompound well whilst a vehicle control is added to the control well. Forthe compound well, the change in impedance or cell index refer to thechange occurred after adding the compound. For the control well, thechange in impedance or cell index refer to the change occurred afteradding the vehicle control. As a nonlimiting example, a compound may beidentified as a factor capable of interacting with a RTK if thecomparison indicates a significant change including an increase or adecrease in impedance or cell index of the compound well after thecompound is added to the test cells that express the RTK, relative tothe control well.

Another method of identifying a factor capable of interaction with areceptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) includes: (a) providing a device capableof measuring cell-substrate impedance; wherein the device comprises atleast two wells, further wherein the device is operably connected to animpedance analyzer, (b) adding test cells to at least one well to format least one test well, wherein the test cells express a RTK, and addingcontrol cells to at least another well to form at least one controlwell, wherein the control cells do not express the RTK or express theRTK at a significantly lesser level that the test cells; (c) measuringfirst impedances from the at least one test well and from the at leastone control well immediately preceding step d) and optionallydetermining first cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding acompound to the at least one test well and to the at least one controlwell; (f) measuring second impedances from the at least one test welland from the at least one control well after step d) and optionallydetermining second cell indices from the second impedances; (g)determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the at leastone test well by comparing the second impedance or the second cell indexof the at least one test well to the first impedance or the first cellindex of the at least one test well, and determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for the at least one control well by comparingthe second impedance or the second cell index of the at least onecontrol well to the first impedance or the first cell index of the atleast one control well; (h) comparing the changes in impedance or incell index between the at least one test well and the at least onecontrol well; and (i) identifying the compound interacts with the RTK ifthe comparison demonstrates a significant difference between the changein impedance or cell index for the at least one test well and the changein impedance or cell index for the at least one control well.

In one example of the above method, a compound may be identified as afactor capable of interacting with a receptor tyrosine kinase if asignificant change is observed between the change in impedance or cellindex of a test well in comparison to the change in impedance or cellindex of a control well. Here test well has the test cells expressing aRTK and control well has control cells not expressing the RTK orexpressing RTK at a significantly low level. The compound is added toboth the test well and the control well.

For the test well, the change in impedance or cell index refer to thechange occurred after adding the compound to the test cells. For thecontrol well, the change in impedance or cell index refer to the changeoccurred after adding the compound to the control cells. As anonlimiting example, a compound may be identified as a factor capable ofinteracting with a RTK if the comparison indicates a significant changeincluding an increase or a decrease in impedance or cell index of thetest well after the compound is added to the test cells that express theRTK, as relative to the control well.

The devices, methods and procedures described previously in Section D.4for identifying a compound capable of interacting with a GPCR, includingbut not limited to, Devices for measuring cell-Substrate Impedance,Compound added to test wells, Measuring or monitoring impedance(cell-substrate impedance), Deriving cell index, Determining changes inimpedance or cell index, Comparing changes in impedance or cell indexand Identifying compounds of interest, may be applied here to themethods of identifying a factor capable of interacting with a receptortyrosine kinase (RTK).

Method of for an Inhibitor for a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) inResponse to Activation of RTK with a Stimulating Factor

The present invention also provides a method of screening for aninhibitor of a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) with a known RTKstimulating factor. Examples of potential inhibitor are but not limitedto a compound, a protein, and antibody and the like. The method forscreening for an inhibitor for a RTK includes: (a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein the devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein the device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding test cells to each of atleast two of the at least two wells, wherein the test cells expresses aRTK; (c) adding a compound suspected of being a RTK inhibitor to atleast one of the at least two wells containing test cells to form atleast one compound well, adding a vehicle control to at least anotherwell of the at least two wells containing test cells to form at leastone control well; (d) measuring first impedances of the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well immediately precedingstep e), and optionally determining first cell indices from the firstimpedances; (f) adding a RTK stimulating factor to the compound well andthe control well; (g) measuring second impedances of the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well after step e) andoptionally determining third cell indices from the second impedances;(h) determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the atleast one compound well by comparing the second impedance or the secondcell index of the at least one compound well to the first impedance orthe first cell index of the at least one compound well, and determiningthe change in the impedance or cell index of the at least one controlwell by comparing the second impedance or the second cell index of theat least one control well to the first impedance or the first cell indexof the the at least one control well; (i) comparing the change inimpedance or cell index between the at least one compound well and theat least one control well; and 6) identifying the compound is aninhibitor for the RTK if the comparison demonstrates a significantdifference between the change in impedance or cell index for the atleast one compound well and the change in impedance or cell index forthe at least one control well.

The devices, methods and procedures described previously in Section D.4for identifying a compound capable of interacting with a GPCR, includingbut not limited to, Devices for measuring cell-Substrate Impedance,Compound added to test wells, Measuring or monitoring impedance(cell-substrate impedance), Deriving cell index, Determining changes inimpedance or cell index, Comparing changes in impedance or cell index,Identifying compounds of interest and Methods of screening for anantagonist for a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) with a known ligandmay be applied here to the method of screening for an inhibitor for areceptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) with a known RTK stimulating factor.

Thus, as provided above, the present invention provides an effectivemethod of screening for inhibitors of receptor protein tyrosine kinases.One way to assess the effect of the inhibitor and to determine thechanges in impedance or cell index for an inhibitor well (i.e., acompound well) is to assess and analyze the peak amplitude and durationof the cell-electrode impedance response. Alternatively, the area underthe cell-index curve or impedance curve of the test well and the controlwell can also be determined as a measure of the inhibitor potency. Thecell-electrode impedance response here refers to the time dependentcell-electrode impedance (or cell index) variation after the addition ofRTK stimulating factor to the cells. Increasing concentrations of aRTK-inhibitor should lead to a dose-dependent decrease in the amplitudeof the response or the area under the cell-index curve or impedancecurve for each compound concentration, indicating that the receptor isinhibited in a specific manner. Some inhibitors may affect not only thepeak amplitude of the response, but also the duration of the response aswell. The duration is defined as the time it takes from the time pointof the stimulation with the RTK-stimulating factor to the time pointwhen the cell-electrode impedance or cell index returns to thecell-electrode impedance or cell index prior to the addition ofRTK-stimulating factor. If certain inhibitors do affect the duration ofthe cell-electrode impedance response, then perhaps in addition toinhibiting the receptor tyrosine kinase of interest, there are otherinhibitory mechanisms-which need to be evaluated using biochemicalmethods.

Method of Screening for a Compound that Affects a Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK) Pathway

The present invention also provides a method of identifying a compoundthat affects a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathway. The methodincludes (a) providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrateimpedance, wherein the device comprises at least two wells, furtherwherein the device is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b)adding test cells to at least two of the at least two wells, wherein thetest cells expresses a RTK; (c) adding a compound suspected of beingcapable of effecting a RTK pathway to at least one of the at least twowells to form at least one compound well, adding a vehicle control to atleast another well of the at least two wells to form at least onecontrol well; (d) measuring first impedances of the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well immediately precedingstep (e), and optionally determining first cell indices from the firstimpedances; (e) adding a RTK stimulating factor to the at least onecompound well and to the at least one control well; (f) measuring secondimpedances of the at least one compound well and the at least onecontrol well after the adding the RTK stimulating factor and optionallydetermining second cell indices from the second impedances; (g)determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the at leastone compound well by comparing the second impedance or the second cellindex of the at least one compound well to the first impedance or thefirst cell index of the at least one compound well, and determining thechange in the impedance or cell index of the at least one control wellby comparing the second impedance or the second cell index of the atleast one control well to the first impedance or the first cell index ofthe the at least one control well; (h) comparing the change in impedanceor cell index between the at least one compound well and the at leastone control well; (i) identifying the compound effects the RTK pathwayif the comparison demonstrates a significant difference between thechange in impedance or cell index for the at least one compound well andthe change in impedance or cell index for the at least one control well.

The methods of the present invention include activating or stimulatingthe RTK. Any method of activating or stimulating the RTK may be used. Insome embodiments, the RTK is activated by adding a growth factor capableof activating the RTK. Examples of suitable growth factors may includeepidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), anerve growth factor (NGF), and an antibody capable of activating RTK.

In one embodiment of the above method, the method further compriseidentifying the compound as an inhibitor for the RTK pathway if thechange in impedance or cell index of the at least one compound well issignificantly smaller than the change in impedance or cell index of theat least one control well. In another word, a compound is identified asan inhibitor for the RTK pathway if the compound inhibits or reduces theimpedance response of the cells to the stimulation of a RTK activatingcompound. One may determine a dose-response curve for such a compoundthat is capable of inhibiting RTK pathway and determine the IC50 valuesusing the approach similar to that used for deriving IC50 for anantagonist for a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) with a known liganddescribed previously in the present invention.

Method of Validating a Molecular Target Involved in the ReceptorTyrosine Kinase (RTK) Signaling Pathway

The intracellular signaling pathway that is stimulated by engagement ofthe receptor tyrosine kinases by their cognate ligand leads not only tothe activation of the receptor but also activation of key enzymes suchas kinases, phosphatases and phospholipases amongst others which lendthemselves as key potential targets for pharmaceutical drug discovery.However, prior to screening for potential inhibitors of these targetproteins and enzymes, the target proteins and enzymes must be validatedto ascertain that they can interfere with receptor tyrosinekinase-mediated signaling. This can be achieved either by introducinginto cells by transfection, electroporation or viral infection the DNAencoding for the dominant negative versions of these proteins, geneticknockouts or siRNA that target and reduce the expression of theseproteins. Also, specific chemical and protein inhibitors of the targetproteins or enzymes may also be introduced to the cells to assess targetvalidation. Once this has been achieved, then the cell-electrodeimpedance measurement method can be used to assess the effect of thesekey proteins on receptor-mediated signaling.

As an example an assay may be performed using the following procedure:introducing into cells either the DNA for the dominant negative versionof the protein, a genetic knockout or siRNA targeting the protein ofinterest by various methods known to those skilled in the biologicalarts, transferring the cells to the wells of ACEA E-Plates, andassessing the effect of interfering agents in one or two ways. First,the cells may be stimulated with growth factors (RTK activation factors,or RTK stimulating factors) and the cellular response monitored by theRT-CES system. If the target protein does participate in thereceptor-mediated signaling pathway, then its abrogation by the methodsdescribed above is expected to either reduce or completely block growthfactor mediated cytoskeletal changes (and/or morphological changes),which can be measured and monitored by cell-electrode impedance sensing.The target is then a good candidate for participation in thereceptor-mediated signaling pathway. Alternatively, the effect ofinterfering with the target protein can be examined in the context wherethe receptor tyrosine kinase participates in the growth andproliferation of the cells. If inhibition or down regulation of thetarget protein interferes with growth and proliferation of the cells,then it is a candidate for participating in the signaling pathwayinitiated by activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase.

The present invention also includes a method of validating a moleculartarget involved in the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathway leadingfrom RTK activation. The methods may include: (a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein the devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein the device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding test cells to at leastone well to form a test well and adding control cells to at leastanother well to form a control well, wherein the control cells express aRTK and the test cells comprise: (i) a dominant negative version ofprotein of interest, (ii) an siRNA targeting a protein of interest,(iii) a gene knockout of a protein of interest or or (iv) a chemical orprotein inhibitor specific for the protein of interest; (c) measuringfirst impedances of the at least one test well and the at least onecontrol well immediately preceding step (d), and optionally determiningfirst cell indices from the first impedances; (d) adding a compound tothe at least one test well and to the at least one control well; (e)measuring second impedances of the at least one test well and the atleast one control well after step (d) and optionally determining secondcell indices from the second impedances; (f) determining the change inthe impedance or cell index for the at least one test well by comparingthe second impedance or the second cell index of the at least one testwell to the first impedance or the first cell index of the at least onetest well, and determining the change in the impedance or cell index ofthe at least one control well by comparing the second impedance or thesecond cell index of the at least one control well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the the at least one control well;(g) comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the at leastone test well and the at least one control well; and (h) validating theprotein of interest as a molecular target if the comparison demonstratesa significant difference between the change in impedance or cell indexof the at least one test well and the change in impedance or cell indexof the at least one control well.

Method of Monitoring Dose-Dependent Functional Activation of a ReceptorTyrosine Kinase (RTK)

The present invention also includes a method of monitoringdose-dependent functional activation of a receptor tyrosine kinase(RTK). The methods may include: (a) providing a device capable ofmeasuring cell-substrate impedance; wherein said device comprises atleast two wells, further wherein said device is operably connected to animpedance analyzer; (b) adding test cells to said at least two wells,wherein said test cells express a RTK; (c) measuring first impedancesfrom said at least two wells immediately preceding step (d) andoptionally determining first cell indices from said first impedances;(d) adding a compound capable of activating said RTK to at least twowells in at least at two different concentrations forming compound wells1 through x, wherein x equals the number of said at least two differentconcentrations; (e) measuring a series of impedances for each of saidcompound wells 1 through x after step (d) and optionally determining aseries of cell indices from said series of impedances, wherein saidseries comprise at least three impedance measurements; (f) determiningthe change in the impedance or cell index for each of said compoundwells 1 through x by comparing said series of impedances or said seriesof cell indices for each of said compound wells 1 through x to saidfirst impedance or said first cell index of each well corresponding tocompound wells through x; and (g) comparing said changes in impedancesor in cell indices between said compound wells 1 through x at a giventime point.

The provided methods may also include establishing a dose curve. Thedose curve may include a display of a series of different concentrationsversus a corresponding maximum change in impedance or cell index foreach of the provided concentrations, as derived from the time-dependentvariation of impedance or cell index after adding the compound at eachconcentration to the test cells. The provided methods may also includedetermining an EC50 of the compound from such dose curve, where EC50 isthe molar concentration of a compound capable of inducing 50% of amaximum response in impedance or cell index for all concentrations ofthe compound. The maximum response in impedance or cell index refers tothe maximum change in cell impedance or cell index for allconcentrations of the compound, as derived from the dose-response curveor dose curve.

Method of Identifying a Compound Capable of Affecting Receptor TyrosineKinase (RTK) Cancer Cell Proliferation

In addition to morphological changes, stimulation of receptor tyrosinekinases via their cognate ligand can induce cell growth andproliferation. It has been shown that stimulation of cells via growthfactors such as EGF can induce signaling pathways which induces theentry of the cells into the cell cycle and proliferation. Therefore,cellular proliferation is another method to assess the functional roleof growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases. The RT-CES system can bereadily used to monitor cellular proliferation, especially those ofbreast and lung cancer, where receptor tyrosine kinases have been shownto play an important role.

The following steps need to be followed to monitor the proliferation ofcancer cells using the RT-CES system: (1) Seed cancer cells at anappropriate density in ACEA E-Plates; (2) Monitor the growth andproliferation of the cells using the RT-CES system until the cells reachthe log growth phase; (3) Add specific inhibitors of the receptortyrosine kinase of interest (compound, antibody or protein) and monitorits effect on cell growth and proliferation for 24 to 48 hours; (4)Alternatively, at 24 hours after seeding the cells, remove the serumfrom the media and only include the cognate growth factor for thereceptor of interest to determine its relevant contribution to cellgrowth and proliferation. If the growth factor alone (without serum) cansupport cell growth, then specific inhibitor of the receptor tyrosinekinase of interest can be added and its effect on cell proliferation canbe monitored using the RT-CES system.

Thus, in one aspect of the present invention, a method is provided foridentifying a compound capable of affecting cancer cell proliferation.The disclosed methods have particular use when the cancer cellproliferation involves a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK). The methodsmeasure impedance over a longer period of time than methods that monitorcell morphology. Whereas, changes in morphology cause short termincreases or decreases in impedance, methods to monitor cancer cellproliferation typically require greater time to identify effectivecompounds. Thus, immediate spikes in impedance may be due tomorphological changes and longer term impedance increases may monitorcellular proliferation.

A method for identifying a compound capable of affecting cancer cellproliferation by inhibiting activity of a receptor tyrosine kinase isprovided in the present invention. The method may include: (a) providinga device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein thedevice comprises at least two wells, further wherein the device isoperably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding cancer cellsexpressing a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) to at least two of the atleast two wells; (c) measuring first impedances of the at least twowells before step (d) and optionally determining first cell indices; (d)introducing a compound suspected of being an RTK inhibitor to the atleast one well to form at least one compound well and adding a vehiclecontrol to at least another well to form a control well; (e) measuring aseries of second impedances of the compound well and the control wellafter step (d) and optionally determining second cell indices; (f)determining the change in the impedance or cell index for the at leastone compound well by comparing the series of second impedances or thesecond cell indices of the at least one compound well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one compound well, anddetermining the change in the impedance or cell index of the at leastone control well by comparing the series of second impedances or thesecond cell indices of the at least one control well to the firstimpedance or the first cell index of the at least one control well; (g)comparing the change in impedance or cell index between the at least onecompound well and the at least one control well; and (h) identifying thecompound is capable of affecting cancer cell proliferation if thecomparison demonstrates the change in impedance or cell index of the atleast one control well is greater than the change in impedance or cellindex at least one compound well.

For the above method, the cells in the control well are expected to growand proliferate. Thus, the change in impedance or cell index for thecontrol well after adding the vehicle control is expected with theincreasing the impedance (resistance) or cell index with time for thecontrol well. If the compound inhibits the activity of the receptortyrosine kinase of interest, then it may inhibit or partially inhibitthe cell proliferation. Thus, the increase in impedance or cell indexfor the compound well with time may be slower than that for the controlwell, and the change in impedance or cell index for the compound well isexpected to smaller than that for the control well.

In a preferred embodiment of the above method, the second impedances aremeasured during a period occurring after an initial spike in impedance.In another preferred embodiment of the above method, the method includeadding a RTK stimulating factor after step (d) and before step (e),wherein the cancer cells are in serum-free medium in the at leastcompound well and in the at least one control well.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Profiling of Dynamic Cell Responses to Anti-CancerDrugs Using ACEA RT-CES System

In this study, we used the RT-CES system to dynamically monitor cancercell responses to chemotherapeutic compounds with characterizedmechanisms, and to profile the specific cell response patterns. Thirteencancer cell lines including cancers of breast, prostate, lung, colon,ovary, kidney, fibroblast, and central nervous system were tested (Table1). Each cancer cell type was treated with 11 chemotherapeuticcompounds, classified as DNA damaging agents, protein kinase inhibitors,anti-mitotic drugs, cell cycle specific inhibitors, protein synthesisinhibitors plus a compound of unknown category (Table 2). Dynamic anddose dependent cell-compound interaction patterns were characterized andsummarized for all the tested cell lines and compounds. The profiles forthree drugs, doxorubicin, olomoucine and paclitaxel against a panel of12 different cell lines are presented in FIGS. 9, 10 and 11,respectively. In addition, we characterized the biological effect ofthese compounds on cells by monitoring cell cycle progression, cellviability and morphological status of the cells in an attempt tocorrelate specific cellular response to the shape of the cell indextrace (FIGS. 12, 13 and 14). Furthermore we calculated thetime-dependent IC-50 values for each compound against the various celllines (FIG. 15) and developed an algorithm to calculate Cell ChangeIndex to profile the dynamic cell response of the differentchemotherapeutic agents across the different cell lines. Cell ChangeIndex was calculated for the dynamic RT-CES responses of different celllines to different chemotherapeutic agents using the definitionsdescribed above. Based on the time-dependent values of CCI, each CCIvalue region across the time scale is represented by black-whiteshading-based coding. For example, if after compound addition, the CCIvalue (for a particular cell line under a specific compound treatment atthe concentration of IC50 value) is nearly zero for certain period oftime and then becomes positive, attaining a value about 0.7/DT (DT isdoubling). Then the cell response to this compound is represented as

a rectangle followed by a

rectangle. Examples of such analysis is shown in FIG. 16. The overallblack-white shading-based coding map representing the cell dynamicresponses to various compounds is shown in FIG. 17.

In summary of this study, we note that using the RT-CES system to screenchemotherapeutic agents results in unique activity patterns that isdependent on the compound itself, the concentration, length ofincubation and the cell type. The “signature” patterns of each drugcorrelates with specific biological phenomenon such as log growth, cellcycle rest, morphology change and cell death. Cell Change Index was agood parameter derived from RT-CES data to mathematically-describe cellchanges. Cell response profiling based on CCI value indicates that drugswith similar mechanism of action displays similar patterns. Thus, thesimilarity in the dynamic cell-compound interaction patterns mayindicate similarity in mechanism of action, mode of resistance andpossibly molecular targets. The RT-CES system can be readily adapted tohigh throughput dynamic screening and analysis of anti-cancer compoundsand the information-intensive approach presented in this study can beapplied to profile existing cancer chemotherapeutic agents, screen newcompounds and provide insight into the mechanism of action ofanti-cancer agents. TABLE I List of cancer cell lines tested against anumber of chemical compounds. Cancer Cell Line Organ or Tissue OriginMDA.MB231 Breast Cancer MCF7 Breast Cancer NCI-H460 Non-Small Cell LungCancer MV522 SW Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer A549 Non-Small Cell LungCancer HT29 Colon cancer HCC2998 Colon cancer A2780 Ovarian CancerOVCAR4 Ovarian Cancer PC-3 Prostate Cancer HepG2 Human HepatosarcomaA431 Epidermoid Cancer HT1080 Fibrosarcoma

TABLE II List of chemical compounds used in the study of profiling celldynamic responses to a number of anti-cancer compounds. Machanisms ofCompound Action Effect on DNA concentration replication or Chemical FromHigh to Low Topology Compounds (dilution factor: 2) Doxorubincin 6.25uM-0.098 uM  5-Fluorouracil 50 uM-0.78 uM Mitotic Poisons Colcemid 3.125uM-0.049 uM   Paclitaxol 0.0125 uM-0.00019 uM  Vinblastin 1.56 uM-0.024uM  Cell Cycle Arrest Olomoucine 100 uM-1.56 uM  Roscovitine 50 uM-0.78uM Kinase Inhibitors Staurosporine  5 uM-0.078 uM Tamoxifan 50 uM-0.78uM Protein synthesis Inhibitor Rifampicin 100 uM-1.56 uM  Unknown typeACEA-1

Example 2 Cytotoxicity Profiling

Methods

Cells. All the cells used in this study were obtained from ATCC andmaintained at 37° C. incubator with 5% CO₂ saturation. H460, HepG2 andHT1080 cells were maintained in RPMI media containing 5% FBS and 1%penicillin and streptomycin. NIH3T3 cells were maintained in DMEM mediacontaining 10% FBS and 1% penicillin and streptomycin.

Cell Proliferation Assays. For each of the cell type, the indicatednumber of cells was seeded per well in 96× microtiter plates (e-platet™with incorporated electrode structures in individual wells device in 100μL of media. The attachment, spreading and proliferation of the cellswere continuously monitored every 30 minutes using the RT-CES™ system (acell-substrate impedance monitoring system. Cell proliferation wasmonitored for a period of 48-72 hours depending on the experiment. Theelectronic readout, cell-sensor impedance is displayed as a parametercalled Cell Index.

Drug Treatment and Cytotoxicity Assessment. For each cell type theoptimum cell concentration was chosen based on their respectiveproliferation pattern (FIG. 18). The indicated cell numbers were seededper well of ACEA's 16× or 96× e-plate™ (exemplary devices of the presentinvention) in 100 μL final volume. The attachment, spreading andproliferation of the cells were continuously monitored every 30 minutesusing the RT-CES system (an exemplary system of the present invention).Approximately 24 hours after seeding, when the cells were in the loggrowth phase, the cells were treated with 100 μL of the indicatedcompounds dissolved in cell culture media. The cells were also treatedwith DMSO, which served as vehicle control. Depending on the experiment,the final DMSO concentration in the media was in the range of0.25%-0.5%.

MTT Assay. Increasing numbers of NIH3T3 cells were seeded in 16× e-plateand monitored by RT-CES to obtain the corresponding Cell Index. Themedia was immediately aspirated and the cells were then assayed by usingthe standard MTT assay according to the manufacturer's protocol.

Flow Cytometry. A549 cells were seeded at a density of 500,000cells/well in 60 mm tissue culture dishes. Approximately, 24 hours afterseeding, the cells were treated with the indicated final concentrationof Olomoucine and 16 hours later the cells were washed with PBS,trypsinized, washed twice with PBS and fixed in 70% methanol and storedat 4° C. until the staining step. The cells were stained with propidiumiodide and analyzed by FACS using a wavelength of 488 nm.

Monitoring Dynamic Cell Proliferation in Real-Time Using the RT-CES

In order to assess dynamic cell proliferation using the RT-CES system,H460 human lung cancer cells, H1080 fibrosarcoma cells, HepG2 humanhepatosarcoma cells and NIH3T3 mouse fibroblasts were seeded at 2500 and10,000 cells per well in triplicate in ACEA's 96× e-plate™. The cellswere continuously monitored every 30 minutes using the RT-CES system forthe indicated period of time (FIG. 18). As shown in FIG. 18, each celltype has its own characteristic kinetic trace, based on the number ofcells seeded, the overall size and morphology of the cells and thedegree to which the cells interact with the sensor surface. Also, theadhesion and spreading kinetics as well as time when the cells enter thelog growth phase is characteristic of each of the indicated cell linesand therefore offers an excellent internal control and a way tostandardize and validate stock cultures during different phases of themanufacturing process.

To ascertain that the RT-CES units of Cell Index correlates with thenumber of the cells in the well, increasing numbers of NIH3T3 cells wereseeded in ACEA 16× e-plate™ and were monitored for up to 10 hours, atwhich time the Cell Index was acquired. FIG. 19A shows a plot of Cellnumber seeded versus the Cell Index obtained and indicates that for thisparticular cell type the RT-CES system could detect as little as 100cells and the readout is linear by two orders of magnitude all the wayup to 10000 cells. In addition, at the end of the experiment describedin FIG. 19A, the cells were also assayed by the MTT assay. As shown inFIG. 19B, even at up to 1000 cells the MTT assay is not appreciablydifferent than background values and for cell numbers exceeding 1000,then the MTT units correlates with the number of cells seeded in alinear fashion. However, it is important to remember that while theRT-CES system is capable of dynamic and continuous measurements, forcomparative reasons the experiment described in FIG. 19 was onlyconducted at a single point, since MTT is a single point assay.

Assessment of Drug Interaction with Target Cells Using the RT-CES™System

To assess drug potency using the RT-CES system, the IC-50 value ofTamoxifen was determined for different cell lines and compared with MTTassay at 48 hours after Tamoxifen addition. According to Table III, theIC-50 values obtained for Tamoxifen for the different cell lines usingthe RT-CES system is very consistent with the values obtained by the MTTassay, indicating that the RT-CES system can be used to assess thepotency of various drugs against different adherent cell lines.

In order to observe the kinetics of drug interaction with target cells,A549 non-small lung cancer cells were seeded in ACEA 96× e-platet™ andcontinuously monitored until the cells reached the log growth phase atwhich point different concentrations of paclitaxel were added to thecells at the indicated final concentration. As shown in FIG. 20A,paclitaxel at the highest concentration initially induces a cytotoxiceffect which is mainly due to cell death as judged by Annexin V staining(FIG. 20B). Remarkably, the cells recover from the initial cytotoxiceffect of the drug and start to re-proliferate. While it remains to bedetermined if this phenomenon is due to metabolism and inactivation ofpaclitaxel or due to the emergence of paclitaxel-resistantsubpopulation, this experiment clearly exemplifies the tremendousadvantage of real-time measurement which is offered by the RT-CES systemand allows the user to the opportunity to observe and assess the entirehistory of drug interaction with the target cells which provides furtherinformation in addition to cell viability or cytotoxicity. Thephenomenon observed in FIG. 20A would've been easily missed bytraditional single-point assays such as MTT.

Yet another major advantage of using the RT-CES system to continuallymonitor the interaction of drugs with target cells is that the user canobtain insight into the mechanism of action of the drug of interest. Todemonstrate this point, A549 cells were seeded in ACEA 96× microtiterdevice and continually monitored by the RT-CES. The cells were treatedwith either DMSO as the vehicle control or with 100 μM Olomoucine whichis a CDK inhibitor and induces cell cycle arrest either at G1→Stransition or at the G2→M transition, depending on the cell line. Asshown in FIG. 21A addition of Olomoucine to exponentially growing A549cells causes the trace of the Cell Index recordings of the cells tolevel off and remain in a steady state that is reminiscent of cell cycleblock, where the cells are neither proliferating nor dying off. Thecontrol cells treated with DMSO continue to proliferate until they reachconfluence, at which time they are contact inhibited and the Cell Indexrecording levels off. To demonstrate that the effect of Olomoucine onA549 cells as monitored by the RT-CES was indeed due to an arrest of thecell cycle, A549 cells growing on tissue culture dish were treated withthe same concentrations of DMSO and Olomoucine and subjected to flowcytometry analysis. As shown in FIG. 21B, the flow cytometry analysisindicates that treatment of A549 cells with the indicated concentrationof Olomoucine induces cell cycle arrest at the G2→M transition, whereCDKs such as CDK2 is active. Taken together, using the RT-CES system todynamically monitor drug interaction with the target cells offers theuser the opportunity to understand the mechanism of drug action and itsmode of interaction with the target cell.

In order to assess the RT-CES system for analysis of cytotoxicity, theinteraction of A549 cells was examined with cytotoxic agents withdifferent mechanism of action. FIG. 22 shows the characteristic trace ofA549 cells monitored by RT-CES™ and treated with differentconcentrations of 5-fluorouracil, vinblastine and staurosporine.According to FIG. 22, dynamic monitoring of the interaction of theindicated cytotoxic agents leads to the generation of characteristickinetic patterns that is dependent on the cellular background, theconcentration of the drug, the duration of exposure and the mechanism ofdrug action. Since each compound has its own characteristic pattern,these kinetic traces could potentially be used to determine themechanism of action of compounds with unknown targets by comparing thekinetic profile to the profile of compounds with known mechanism ofaction.

Label-free and dynamic monitoring of cell proliferation, viability andcytotoxicity using the RT-CES system offers very distinct and importantadvantages over traditional endpoint assays. It allows for built ininternal quality control to assure consistency and reproducibilitybetween the different assays. Dynamic monitoring allows for observationof the entire episode of drug interaction with target cells and the usercan therefore have a better understanding of the mode and mechanism ofdrug interaction. Furthermore, the actual kinetic trace of the druginteraction with the target cell is very significant because it canoffer clues as to the mechanism of drug interaction with the targetcell. Finally, since each compound or drug has its own characteristicprofile with respect to its interaction with target cells, the RT-CESsystem can be used as a way to determine the mechanism of action ofdrugs with unknown targets.

Table III. Comparison of IC-50 values for Tamoxifen treatment ofdifferent cancer cell lines using the RT-CES system versus MTT assay.The indicated cell lines were seeded in ACEA 16× devices and monitoredby RT-CES. Approximately 24 hours later, the cells were treated withincreasing concentrations of Tamoxifen and then continually monitored byRT-CES. The experiment was stopped about 48 hours later and the cells inthe 16× devices were assayed by using MTT. The IC-50 values derived fromRT-CES system are time-dependent. In the table, the IC-50 values atabout 48 hrs after compound treatment are shown for RT-CES systemdetermination and MTT assay. Cell Type RT-CES ™ MTT Assay HT1080 22.4 μM30.0 μM NIH3T3 16.0 μM 19.0 μM HepG2 15.2 μM 16.2 μM HUEVEC  7.5 μM  8.0μM

Example 3 Measuring and Monitoring the Morphological Changes Occurringin Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) Cells upon Stimulation of the MuscarinicM1 and M3 Receptors

As an example, we describe here the use of the ACEA RT-CES™ system tomeasure and monitor the morphological changes that occur as a result ofcarbacol treatment of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells which expressthe muscarinic M1 and M3 receptor.

CHO cells expressing the muscarinic M1 receptor (CHO-M1) or themuscarinic M3 receptor (CHO-M3) were seeded in ACEA's 16× device(E-Plate) at 20,000 cells/well and the attachment and growth of thecells in the 37° C. tissue culture incubator were monitored in real-timeusing RT-CES™ system (which includes, for example, a 16× device stationor 16× E-Plate station, RT-CES impedance analyzer and integratedsoftware for controlling the impedance analyzer and device station).Cell index curves measured on the RT-CES system are shown in FIGS. 23and 24. After 22 hours the cells were treated with different doses ofcarbacol which is an agonist for both the M1 and M3 receptors. As acontrol, the cells were treated with media alone. The device chamberswere returned to the incubator and recording was resumed. In addition,as a measure of specificity, the cells were also treated with carbacolin the presence of excess amount of pirenzipine, which is an antagonistof the M1 and M3 receptors.

The effect of carbacol on CHO-M1 cells and CHO-M3 cells in the presenceor absence of pirenzipine is shown in FIGS. 23 and 24. The effect ofcarbacol is seen as a transient and abrupt shift in the trace of thecell index number at 22 hours, immediately after treatment withdifferent doses of carbacol. The duration of the signal for thecarbacol-mediated affect lasts approximately 4 hours and then returns tobaseline. The vehicle control did not have any effect on the recording.However, as expected, pirenzipine blocked the effect of carbacol on bothCHO-M1 and CHO-M3 cells indicating that the effect of carbacol is indeedmediated through the M1 and M3 receptors, respectively. Furthermore,carbacol and pirenzipine did not have any effect on CHO-K cells which donot express the M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors (FIG. 25), indicatingthat the response is dependent on the expression of the muscarinic M1 orM3 receptors. In addition CHO-M1 cells were stimulated with increasingconcentration of carbacol and the cell-electrode impedance response wascontinually monitored by RT-CES system. As shown in FIG. 26, thecell-electrode impedance response is dependent on the concentration ofcarbacol which is maximal at 31.25 nM. This experiment shows that theRT-CES system can be used to assess the effect of GPCR stimulation oncells and furthermore, it illustrates that this assay can be used toscreen for antagonist of specific GPCRs. The assay can be performed inhigh-throughput format, in real time and without the need for any otherreagents or cellular manipulation.

Example 4 Monitoring Dose-Dependent Functional Activation of theMuscarinic M1 and M3 Receptors in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) Cells andPharmacological Characterization by a Selective M1 Agonist

M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors are linked to a modulation of cellfunction via Gq class of heterotrimeric G-proteins. We used CHO cellsstably expressing the M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors to test theirresponses to carbachol, a non-hydrolysable analogue of acetylcholine.The cells were continuously monitored using the RT-CES system. At theindicated time point, increasing concentrations of carbachol were addedto the cells and the cell response was monitored every 3 min. As shownin FIG. 27, carbachol ranging from 15 nM to 11 uM leads to aconcentration-dependent increase in cell index in M 1 cells (A) and M3cells (C). The dynamic of the cell responses demonstrates that maximalcell responses were achieved one hour after the application of carbacholand the cell index gradually decrease to lower levels. Plotting the peakcell index response versus the corresponding log concentration allowsfor calculation of the EC₅₀ values of carbachol for M1 cells (B) and M3cells (D). Both the M1 and M3 muscarinic receptors are coupled to Gqsubclass of Gα proteins so that their response patters on the RT-CESsystem are highly similar. To examine the pharmacology of carbachol onM1 cells, we started with a selective M1 antagonist, pirenzepine, toconfirm the specificity of carbachol. As shown in FIG. 27 (D),pirenzepine attenuates carbachol-induced cell responses in aconcentration-dependent manner with IC50 of 0.7 uM. These resultsindicate that the effects of carbachol observed are caused by M1receptors overexpressed in the host cell line.

B. Monitoring Dose-Dependent Functional Activation of the Muscarinic M3and M2 Receptors Expressed in RBL-2H3Cell Line

Parallely, we compared two distinct muscarinic receptors whichpreferentially interact with specific G proteins. In general, oddnumbered muscarinic receptors interact with α subunit of Gq class whileeven numbered muscarinic receptors are coupled to α subunit of Gi class.In turn, activation of Gq stimulates phospolipase C and activation Gidecreases cAMP production. Clearly as indicated in FIG. 28, activationof M3 (A) and M2 (C) by carbachol reveals two unique profiles of cellindex dynamics. Similar but not identical to M3 expressed in CHO cellline (FIG. 27C.), M3 expressed in RBL-2H3 cell line demonstrates thatmaximal cell responses were achieved one hour after the application ofcarbachol and the cell index stay high for a relative longer period oftime. On the contrary, M2 expressed in RBL-2H3 cell line reveals acomplete different pattern to carbachol application. Cell Index increasesharply and reached the maximal levels with 1-2 hours and then quicklytapered off and the cell index stay lower close to basal levelsafterwards.

C. Monitoring Dose-Dependent Functional Activation of the HumanHistamine H1 Receptor (hH1-C1) Stably Expressed in CHO Cell Line

Another category of GPCR coupled to Gq has been investigated. We choosecell line overexpress human recombinant H1 receptors (hH1-C1) tosubstantiate what have been found in our previous described results.hH1-C1 cells were tested by various concentrations of histamine. Asshown in FIG. 29, histamine produce concentration-dependent increases incell index and the EC₅₀ of histamine is 1.7 nM (B). Brompheniramine (aselective H1 antagonist) completely blocks histamine-induced CIincreases with IC50 of 12 nM indicating that histamine-induced CIincreases in hH1-C1 cells were specifically mediated by H1 receptors.

D. Monitoring Dose-Dependent Functional Activation of the HumanVasopressin Receptor 1a (V1a-C1) Stably Expressed in 1321-N] Cells andCharacterization of Pharmacology

Vasopressin 1a receptor (V1a) together with V1b and V2, are a member ofa family of related GPCRs which are activated by neurohypophysialpeptide hormones including vasopressin (AVP). V1a is coupled to Gq andactivation of the receptors leads to PLC activation and mediates aplethora response to AVP. We tested the V1a-C1 cell lines in RT-CSEsystem for the purpose of characterization of pharmacology. We used thenatural ligand of V1a, namely AVP, to monitor the change of CI as theread-outs of functional activation of the V1a receptors. We testedvarious concentrations AVP ranging from 1 pM to 10 uM. The traces forconcentrations between 30 pM and 0.3 uM are shown in FIG. 30A.AVP-induced CI increases were transient in nature and CI graduallyapproached to basal levels after 5-6 hour of AVP application. Maximaleffects of each tested-concentration were use to generate aconcentration-dependent curve shown in FIG. 30B and EC₅₀ of AVP is 155pM. [β-Mercapto-β,β-cyclopentamethylene-propionyll, O-Et-Tyr², Val⁴,Arg⁸]Vasopressin (βM AVP) was used a blocker for AVP. The IC50 of βM AVPis 761 nM.

Example 5 Monitoring the Functional Activation of GPCRs ExpressedEndogenously in a Variety of Cell Lines

A. Using The RT-CES System to Monitor the Functional Activation ofEndogenous Histamine Receptor in HeLa Cells and Characterization ofPharmacology.

HeLa cells were tested by application of histamine to monitor theactivation of the endogenous histamine receptors. As demonstrated inFIGS. 31A, B, histamine produced concentration-dependent increases of CIand the EC50 of histamine is 146 nM. The effects of histamine can beattenuated by brompheniramine with IC₅₀ of 406 nM (FIGS. 31C, D).

B. Using the RT-CES System to Monitor the Functional Activation ofEndogenous Endothelin Receptor in Hela Cells

HeLa cells were tested by application of endothelin 1 to monitor theactivation of the endogenous endothelin receptors. As demonstrated inFIG. 32, endothelin 1 produced concentration-dependent increases of CIand the EC50 of endothelin 1 is 0.9 nM.

C. Using the RT-CES System to Monitor the Functional Activation ofEndogenous B-Adrenergic Receptors in C6 Glioma

C6 cells were tested by application of isoproterenol, a β-adrenergicagonist. Unlike activation of other category of G protein subunits,activation of β-adrenergic receptors produced the dynamics of decreasedCI. Isoproterenol produced a concentration-dependent and transientdecrease of CI (FIG. 33A) with EC50 of 24 nM (FIG. 33B). The effects ofisoproterenol can be blocked by β-adrenergic receptors antagonistalprenolol (FIG. 33C) with an IC50 of 120 nM (FIG. 33D) indicating theinvolvement of β-adrenergic receptors for this phenomenon. Tosubstantiate the involvement of Gs, we take the advantage of dibutylcAMP, a cell membrane permeable analogue of cAMP (FIGS. 33E, F), andforskolin (FIGS. 33G, H), an adenylate cyclase activator; both mimic theincrease of intracellular cAMP as the consequence of Gs activation. Bothcompounds demonstrated the profiles of decreased CI supporting theresults of isoproterenol.

D. Using the RT-CES System to Monitor the Functional Activation of theCalcitonin Receptor in CHO-K1 Cell

Another pair of ligand-receptor coupled to Gs, calcitonin on CHO cells,has been tested by RT-CES system. In contrast to the activation of Gs inC6 cells, activation of Gs in CHO by calcitonin generated the increasedCI. As shown (FIG. 34 A, B), the effects of calcitonin isconcentration-dependent with EC₅₀ of 0.385 nM.

Example 6 Monitoring the GPCR Activation Pathway Using the RT-CES™System

A. Activation of GPCRs in hH1-C1-Cells And V1a-C1 Cells by theirRespective Ligands Cause Membrane Ruffling and Focal Adhesion Assembly

As the cell-electrode impedance reading is primarily associated withnumber, shape and strength of the adhesion of the cells on the surfaceof electrodes, we utilized there are indeed a morphological changes ofthe cells after the application of the ligand, which are associated withthe changes of CI we observed in RT-CES system. We choose hH1-C1 andV1a-C1 cells stimulated by their respective ligands. After the additionof the ligand, f-actin was visualized by FTIC-phalloidin and a focaladhesion protein paxillin was co-stained by its antibody. As shown inFIG. 35, after a brief exposure to histamine (100 nM, 5 min), membraneruffling as indicated by phalloidin and increased focal adhesionassembly reflected by paxillin become apparent (arrows in lower panelsof FIG. 35). The similar phenomenon was found in V1a-C1 cells stimulatedby AVP (arrows in lower panels of FIG. 36).

B. Utilization of Various Signal Transduction Blockers to Dissect theMechanisms of Histamine-Induced CI Changes in hH1-C1 Cells.

In order to fully understand the intracellular events after activationof H1 receptors, various pathway blockers or toxins were applied to thehH1-C1 cells before the addition of histamine. The CI was continuouslymonitored by RT-CES system. We demonstrated that protein kinas Cinhibitor, bisindolylmalemide (10 uM) completely inhibits the effects ofhistamine (FIG. 37 A). Src inhibitor, PP2 delays and attenuates theeffects of histamine the effects histamine (FIG. 37 B) implying that Srcpathway might be involved in GPCRs mediated intracellular events. Celladhesion blocker latrunculin completely eliminate the effects ofhistamine stressed the importance of cell adhesion in response to H1activation by histamine (FIG. 37 C). Rho kinase inhibitor ROCK partiallyreduced the magnitude of CI increases by histamine and slightly delayedthe effects of histamine. histamine (FIG. 37 D). MEK inhibitor PD98059also delayed the effects of histamine but has little inhibition for themagnitude of histamine. histamine (FIG. 37 E). PLC inhibitor U73122significantly delayed onset and reduced the magnitude by histamine (FIG.37 F).

Example 7 Application of RT-CES System for Ranking the Potency ofAntagonists and for Screening Inverse Agonists

A. Using RT-CES System to Rank the Potencies of Antagonists: PotentialApplication of Compound Screening

In order to further explore the possibilities of compound screening byRT-CES system, we used the hH1-C1/histamine pair to compare thepotencies of a panel of selective H1 antagonists. As shown in FIG. 38,RT-CES system can readily rank the potencies of the antagonists. Theorder of potency ranking isloratidine>mirtazepine>triprolidine=mepyramine. Tiotidine, a selectiveH2 antagonist was used a negative control.

B. Using RT-CES System to Discovery Potential Inverse Agonists

One of the new applications of RT-CES system described in thisapplication is its potential use for inverse agonist characterization.Recent literatures have revealed that some of the antagonist has theintrinsic activities of inverse agonist. We demonstrated here thatapplication of selective H1 antagonist alone produced a CI profileopposite to what agonist generated; namely, agonist (histamine)increases the CI while inverse agonist decreases the CI. The RT-CESsystem can also rank the potencies of a panel of inverse agonists. Asshown in FIG. 39, the order of potency ranking as the inverse agonistsis loratidine>mirtazepine>triprolidine>mepyramine. Tiotidine, aselective H2 antagonist does not have the activities of inverse agonist.

Example 8 Dynamic Monitoring of G-Protein Couple Receptor (GPCR) inLiving Cells Using the RT-CES System

This example further expands on the utilization of the RT-CES technologyto develop a label-free and real-time cell-based assay for monitoringfunctional activation of GPCRs in living cells. We demonstrate that thisassay can be used with both engineered cell lines expressing recombinantGPCRs coupled to different G-proteins and more importantly with celllines expressing endogenous levels of GPCRs. In addition, thenon-invasive nature of the RT-CES readout makes it especially attractiveas a tool for GPCR screening and research because multiple stimulationswith the same agonist/antagonist or different agonist/antagonist indifferent combinations can be carried out in the same well. Also, thedynamic nature of the cell response to a particular agonist provideshigh content information regarding the signaling pathways beingactivated and can also be used to screen for antagonists and inverseagonists.

A. Materials and Methods

Cell Culture. All the cells used in this study were purchased from ATCCunless indicated otherwise. The cells are cultured in a standardhumidified incubator at 37° C. with 5% CO₂. C6 cells and HeLa cells weremaintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplementedwith 10% fetal calf serum, 2 mM glutamine and 1%penicillin/streptomycin. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were maintainin Ham's F12 medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum, 2 mMglutamine and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. Cell line stably expressinghuman recombinant histamine receptor 1 (H1), human vasopressin 1a(V_(1a)) and human recombinant dopamine receptor 1 (D1) were obtainedform Euroscreen and maintained in Ham's F12 medium supplemented with 10%fetal calf serum, 2 mM glutamine, 1% penicillin/streptomycin and 400ug/mL G418. Cell line stably expressing human recombinant5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 1A (5-HT1A) was obtained form Euroscreenand maintained in Ultra-CHO medium supplemented with 1%penicillin/streptomycin and 400 ug/mL G418.

Reagents. All the reagents were purchased form Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.)unless indicated otherwise Loratidine, mirtazepine, mepyramine,triprolidine, tiotidine were purchased form Tocris (Ellisville, Mo.)

RT-CES Measurement of Cell-Electrode Impedance. The detailedexperimental procedures have been described previously (Abassi et al,.Label-free, real-time monitoring of IgE mediated mast cell activation onmicroelectronic cell sensor arrays, in J. of Immunological Methods. Vol:292, pp 195-205, 2004; Solly et al., Application of real-time cellelectronic sensing (RT-CES) technology to cell-based assays, in Assayand Drug Development Technologies. Vol: 2, pp 363-372, 2004.) Briefly,50 μL of selective medium was added to wells of ACEA's 16× E-plates toobtain background readings followed by the addition of 150 μL of cellsuspension containing the indicated number of cells. The E-platecontaining the cells were allowed to incubate at room temperature for 10minutes prior to being placed on the device station in the 37° C. CO₂incubator for continuous recording of impedance as reflected by CellIndex (CI). The cells were allowed to attach and spread typically for6-8 h to reach a stable base line before the addition of agonists.Typically, 5 μL of 40× stock solution of agonist was gently added to thewell and recording was resumed. For pharmacological and mechanisticstudies, antagonists or inhibitors were added to the cells 5-10 minprior to the agonist application. The results were expressed bynormalized CI, unless indicated otherwise, which are derived from theratio of CIs before and after the addition of the compounds. Forconcentration-dependent study, maximal response (usually 1-2 h after theligand application) of a given concentration of the compound was used toplot the concentration-dependent curve and EC₅₀ or IC₅₀ were calculatedby Prism (San Diego, Calif.).

Fluorescence Microscopy. H1 cells and V1a cells were seeded in 16-wellLab-tec chamber slides and allowed to attach and spread for 24 h. Thecells were stimulated by 100 nM histamine for 5 min and washed 3 timeswith PBS before fixation. The cells were fixed in 4% paraformaldehydeand permeabilized in PBS containing 0.2% Triton X 100. After washing,the fixed cells were blocked by PBS containing 0.5% BSA. The cells werestained with phalloidin conjugated with FTIC and a monoclonalanti-paxillin antibody from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.). The cells werewashed 3 times with PBS and visualized and imaged by using a Nikon E400epifluorescence microscope and Nikon ACT software.

B. Dynamic Monitoring of GPCR Activation in Living Cells by RT-CESSystem.

The RT-CES system is composed of a 16× or 96× device station which fitsinside the tissue culture incubator, an electronic analyzer and acomputer which runs the software and operates the entire system. At thecore of the system are 16× and 96× electronic plates (E-plates™) withintegrated microelectrodes in the bottom of the wells. Adherent cellsare cultured on the surface of the sensors and the presence or absenceof cells sensitively and precisely affects the electronic and ionicpassage between cell culture media and the microelectrodes. Thus,interrogating the electrode impedance provides succinct informationabout the biological status of the cells such as proliferation,morphological changes and cell death.

In order to determine if the RT-CES system can be used to dynamicallymonitor the functional activation of GPCRs, CHO-K1 cells expressing thehuman H1 histamine receptor (H1) and 1321-N1 cells expressing the humanvasopressin receptor (V1a) were seeded on the E-plates and stimulatedwith histamine and vasopressin, respectively (FIG. 40). Both histamineand vasopressin induced an immediate and transient increase in CI (FIGS.40A and 40C). The maximal response for H1 cells was at 40 min afterhistamine addition while for V1a cells it was at 90 min (FIGS. 40A andC). Both histamine and vasopressin act through Gq and have also beenshown to modulate the actin cytoskeleton and its regulatory proteinssuch as focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and paxillin. In order to determineif histamine and vasopressin lead to modulation of the actincytoskeleton and its signaling proteins, H1 cells and V1a cells werestimulated with histamine and vasopressin, respectively, fixed, stainedwith FITC-Phalloidin and anti-paxillin mAb (FIG. 40B). Histaminetreatment of H1 cells lead to an immediate (5 min) induction of membraneruffles and translocation of paxillin to the site of membrane ruffleswhich is indicative of active actin remodeling (FIG. 40B). Similarly,vasopressin also induced formation of membrane ruffles and translocationof paxillin to these sites (FIG. 40D). In summary, the RT-CES system candetect the functional activation of GPCR based on its ability tomodulate the actin cytoskeleton and cell adhesion.

C. Dynamic and Quantitative Monitoring of Recombinant GPCRs Coupled toDifferent Signaling Pathways.

In order to further extend the findings discussed above, H1 cells wereseeded in E-plates, treated with increasing concentration of histamineand continually monitored by RT-CES system. As depicted in FIG. 41A,histamine leads to a transient and dose-dependent increase in CI. Toobtain a dose-response curve the log concentration of histamine wasplotted against the normalized CI and the approximate EC₅₀ valueobtained from this plot was 1.7 nM. Similarly, vasopressin causes atransient and dose-dependent increase in CI (FIG. 41C) with EC₅₀ of 155pM (FIG. 41D). To determine if the functional activation of GPCRscoupled to other signaling pathways such as Gs or Gi can also bemonitored on RT-CES system, CHO-K1 cells expressing the human dopamine 1receptor (D1) coupled to Gs, or the human 5HT1A receptor (5-HT1A)coupled to Gi, were seeded on E-plates and stimulated with increasingconcentrations of their respective ligands. As shown in FIGS. 42A and42C, both cell types are activated in a dose-dependent manner. Togenerate a dose-response curve, the peak normalized CI value was plottedversus the log concentration of the agonist. Stimulation of D1 receptorby dopamine gave an EC₅₀ value of 0.79 pM (FIG. 42B), while 5-HT1Areceptor by 5-HT stimulation gave an EC₅₀ value of 12.4 nM (FIG. 42D).In summary, the RT-CES system can detect the functional activation ofGPCRs coupled to the different signaling pathways, which traditionallyrequires different detection technologies and instrumentation such ascalcium or IP3 measurement (Gq) and cAMP measurements (Gs and Gi).

D. Dynamic Monitoring of Endogenously Expressed GPCR in Living Cells.

One of the challenges encountered by current label-based assays such ascalcium measurements is that the cells have to be engineered to expresspromiscuous G proteins coupled to the calcium pathway. Alternatively,receptors may need to be overexpressed in order to obtain sufficientmeasurable signal. Once again all these artificial manipulations mayease the burden of screening large sets of compounds; however,physiological relevance of the findings will need to be supplementedwith other experiments. The number of assays available to measure thefunctional activation of endogenous GPCRs in their natural andphysiologically relevant settings is limited. We wanted to determine ifRT-CES system can monitor the functional activation of endogenous GPCRscoupled to different signaling pathways. HeLa cells were seeded inE-plates and stimulated with increasing concentrations of histamine. Asshown in FIG. 43A, histamine stimulation of HeLa cells leads to adose-dependent and transient increase in cell index. The kinetics andamplitude of histamine-mediated response in HeLa cells are significantlydifferent from those of H1 cells. Primarily, this can be explained bycell type specificity in terms of histamine signaling. Also, otherhistamine receptors in addition to H1 may be present in HeLa cells whichcan contribute to the amplitude and duration of the response. Thecalcitonin receptor is coupled to the Gs pathway. To determine ifendogenous activation of calcitonin receptor can be detected by theRT-CES system, CHO-K1 cells were seeded on E-plates and stimulated withthe indicated concentrations of calcitonin (FIG. 43C). As shown in FIG.43C, calcitonin leads to a robust and transient increase in CI andplotting normalized CI versus log concentration of the ligand gives adose-response curve with an EC₅₀ of 0.385 nM (FIG. 43D). On thecontrary, β1 adrenergic receptor stimulation in C6 cells byisoproterenol reveals an opposite changes of CI. As shown in FIG. 43E,isoproterenol generated a dose-dependent decrease of CI with an EC₅₀ of24 nM (FIG. 43F). In summary, it has been demonstrated that the RT-CESsystem can monitor the functional activation of GPCRs coupled todifferent signaling pathways for both endogenous receptors andrecombinant receptors.

E. Quantitative Analysis and Ranking of Histamine Receptor Antagonistsand Inverse Agonists.

In order to validate the GPCR assay using the RT-CES system we chose apanel of well-characterized and selective histamine antagonists to testand rank their potency in H1 cells stimulated with histamine. H1 cellswere seeded in E-plates, pre-incubated with the indicated concentrationsof selective H1 antagonists or H2 receptor antagonists as a control andthen stimulated with a fixed concentration of histamine (20 nM). Thepeak normalized CI values were plotted versus the log concentrations ofthe antagonists. H1 receptor antagonist triprolidine, loratidine,mirtazepine and mepyramine led to a dose-dependent inhibition ofhistamine-mediated cellular response (previously shown as FIG. 38) withIC_(50s) of 9 nM, 24 uM, 343 nM and 9 nM respectively while H2 selectiveantagonist tiotidine did not inhibit histamine-induced cell response atall the indicated concentrations tested. These results strongly indicatethat RT-CES system can be used for the purpose of potency ranking ofantagonists in a receptor subfamily specific manner. Interestingly, theH1 receptor antagonists alone gave rise to dose-dependent decreases ofCI levels (previously shown as FIG. 39). This observation can beexplained by the fact that all these H1 receptor antagonists havecertain degrees of activities as inverse agonist (Fitzsimons et al.,Mepyramine, a histamine H1 receptor agonist, binds preferentially to a Gprotein-coupled form of the receptor and sequesters G protein, in TheJournal of Biochemical Chemistry, Vol: 279, pp 34431-34439, 2004), whichimpacts the basal activities of H1 receptor. Furthermore, selective H2receptor antagonist tiotidine did not seem to affect histamine-mediatedactivation of the H1 cells nor did it have activity as inverse agonistindicating that the responses are specific. In summary, these resultsdemonstrate that the RT-CES system can be used to screen selectiveantagonists or inverse agonists of GPCRs. Furthermore, the basal CIdisplayed prior to agonist addition is an actual reflection of the basaland cumulative signaling taking place inside the cell and any agent suchas inverse agonists that perturb the basal signaling activity can bedetected by the RT-CES system.

We have shown in this example that the RT-CES system can be used forfunctional screening of GPCR activity in cell-based assays. The mainfeatures which distinguish the RT-CES based assay described here fromother cell-based functional assays for GPCRS are: (i) no pre- orpost-labeling of the cells are necessary, saving expensive reagents andtime; (ii) the readout is non-invasive and therefore cellulardestruction is not required, allowing for multiple manipulations on thesame cells in the same well, (iii) real-time kinetic readout whichprovides succinct and high content information regarding the pathwaysbeing activated, (iv) no compound interference with the detection methodwhich can be a major problem in most optical-based assays and (v) sincethe readout monitors cell attachment and cell morphology which areintegral components of cell viability, any compound that may bepotentially cytotoxic or may have other adverse effects can be detected.Finally, the RT-CES system provides novel readouts for GPCR functions inliving cells and provides another vantage point to increase ourunderstanding of GPCR functions.

Example 9 Dynamic Monitoring of COS-7 Cells During Stimulation orInhibiton of a RTK

The RT-CES™ system was used to dynamically monitor the inhibition and/orstimulation of a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK). Furthermore the RT-CES™system allowed the determination of the EC50 and IC50 of the RTK.

Cell Culture and Reagents. COS7 cells were acquired from ATCC. They weremaintained in DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum andincubated at 37 deg with 5% CO₂. From the time the cells were platedthrough the experimental process, cells were continually monitored withthe RT-CES system. Cells were plated on sensor plates at 1×10⁴ cells perwell and incubated overnight. During the day of assay, cells were serumstarved in DMEM supplemented with 0.25% BSA for a total of 4 hours. Iftreated with inhibitors, cells were preincubated with inhibitors duringthe last hour of serum starvation and stimulated with growth factors.Inhibitors (Calbiochem) and LOPAC enzyme inhibitor ligand set (Sigma)were resuspended and stored according to manufacturers instructions.

ELISA. Cells were plated on sensor plates at 1×10⁴ cells per well andincubated overnight. During the day of assay, cells were serum starvedin DMEM supplemented with 0.25% BSA for a total of 4 hours. Ifpretreated with inhibitors, cells were preincubated with inhibitorsduring the last hour of serum starvation and then stimulated with growthfactor for 15 minutes. After growth factor stimulation, cells werewashed 2 times with cold PBS and lysed. ELISA (Biosource) assay wasperformed to detect total EGFR and phospho-EGFR (1068) and read at 450nm.

Statistical and Data Analysis. All dose response curves were generatedby plotting the average of % control +/−standard deviation versus ligandor inhibitor concentrations. The average % control was calculatedrelative to samples treated with growth factor alone minus inhibitor ofquadriplicate samples. The EC₅₀ for ligands and IC₅₀ for inhibitors weredetermined from fitted curve generated by XLfit 4.0.

Results and Discussion. Cells plated on the ACEA RT-CES sensor plates(E-plates™) were continuously monitored from the time of plating to theend of the experiment. This allows for continuous monitoring of cellsand assay conditions for quality control before and during the time ofexperimentation. 1×10⁴ COS7 cells plated on ACEA RT-CES sensor plateswere serum starved for a total of 4 hours and stimulated with 25 ηg/mLEGF or insulin and monitored every minute from the time of ligandaddition. Ligand addition results in a rapid and transient increase incell index for both EGF and insulin treated cells (FIG. 44A). Thisincrease was immediately followed by a decrease in cell index, with EGFshowing a faster rate of decrease in cell index over time compared toinsulin. The transient increase in cell index is a result ofcytoskeletal rearrangements as a result of growth factor treatment. Itis well documented that one of the intracellular signals RTKs activateare cytoskeletal changes resulting in membrane ruffling, lamellipodiaand filopodia formation. To characterize the specificity of theseresponses to ligand treatment, cells were pretreated for one hour with10 μM of the EGFR inhibitor (EGFR1), 4557W, prior to addition of EGF orinsulin. Since the inhibitor is specific to EGFR, application of theEGFR1 should only affect cellular changes induced by EGF treatment.Indeed, after ligand addition, the transient increase in cell index wasonly detected on cells treated with insulin and not EGF (FIG. 44B). Theabsence of cell response in EGF treated cells was a result of thespecific inhibition of EGFR and its signaling pathways by the EGFR1. Thespecificity of this inhibitor and ligand response is demonstrated by thelack of effect on the transient increase in cell index of insulintreated cells.

To further characterize this cellular response, a wide range of EGF andinsulin concentrations were used to determine the ligand EC₅₀ (FIGS. 45Aand 45B). The cell index was measured for each concentration everyminute over several hours. Cells treated with low concentration of theligand showed transient small changes in peak cell index, while anincreasing concentration of ligand resulted in an increase in theamplitude of the peak of the cell index. The magnitude of the cell indexwas directly related to the concentration of ligand used and reached asaturable response. From these trace the maximum cellindex for eachligand concentration were determined and the % control relative to theresponse of the sample treated with the maximum ligand concentrationcalculated and plotted versus ligand concentrations. From the fittedcurves the EGF and insulin EC₅₀ were calculated to be 0.95 ng/mL and 8.5ng/mL, respectively. An important consideration of the assay is to showthat these results are consistent with other RTK assays. To compare theEC₅₀ values derived from ACEA RT-CES with a well-established assay usedto monitor RTK activity, ELISA assays were performed to detectphosphorylated EGFR on COS7 cells treated with varying concentrations ofEGF (FIG. 45C). From the fitted curve an EC₅₀ value of 2.6 ng/mL wascalculated. This value was comparable to EC₅₀ values determined usingthe ACEA RT-CES demonstrating the use of this system as an alternativeor complementary assay to existing RTK assays.

To determine the appropriate conditions to initiate a screen for EGFRinhibitors using the ACEA RT-CES system, a few parameters were optimizedto maximize the signal to noise and the quality of the data. First, theoptimum concentration of cells needed to achieve the maximum amount ofsignal was determined (FIG. 46A). A range of COS7 cells were plated andtested for response to EGF. The maximum peak in cell index as a resultof EGF treatment was observed to increase with increasing number ofcells plated. However, this response reached a critical cell densitywherein further increase in cell number resulted in a decrease in cellindex. This decrease is thought to be due to the absence of availablespace between the cells preventing the lateral expansion cell membraneover the sensors during ligand mediated cytoskeletal rearrangement.Second, it is also necessary to titrate the ligand concentration todetermine the maximum amount of ligand needed to produce the highestsignal and appropriate ligand concentration for the type of assay used(FIG. 46A). Having maximized these conditions, the statistical parameterin terms of Z′ factor and S/N value of the assay was determined andevaluated to assess the quality of the assay (FIG. 46B). The Z′factor isa statistical characteristic for evaluating the assay quality. The Z′factor calculated showed a value of 0.6, which is above the acceptablelimit for a robust and consistent assay, and the S/N value of 38.

In order to validate this assay a screen was conducted of a diversecollection of small molecule inhibitors from Sigma (FIG. 47A). Thislibrary was supplemented to include a specific EGFR1. The library wasarrayed in a 96-well format and contains several wells of full activity(positive) and zero activity (negative) reference controls. Sigma'sinhibitor ligand set was screened at a single concentration between 5-10μM. Maximum cell index as a result of EGF treatment was determined foreach inhibitor treated samples and the % control relative to thepositive reference, EGF treated cell without inhibitor, was calculated.Using 60% (or 40% inhibition) as the cutoff criteria for hitconsideration, the screening study identified a single potent inhibitor.This inhibitor was the EGFR1, 4557W, which was added to the library. Theassay was also tested against a collection of kinase inhibitors andsimilarly identified only the EGFR1 to produce the most significantinhibition (FIG. 47B). The inhibitor was further characterized and adose response curve generated (FIG. 47C). From the fitted curve an IC50of 161 ηM was calculated. This set of experiments demonstrates theability of ACEA RT-CES system to identify a potent and selectiveinhibitor from a diverse library and chemically focused kinase library,and also to further characterize identified hits.

In addition to insulin and EGF, this cellular response can also bedetected with treatment of HGF, FGF and PDGF in different mammaliancancer cells (FIG. 48). To explore the responses to these growthfactors, several human cell lines were plated and treated with differentgrowth factors. Cell lines such as A431 showed a robust response to EGFand HGF, while minimal response was observed to other growth factors.

In conclusion, these data demonstrate a facile and novel cell basedassay for RTK activity and function. This assay quantifies morphologicalchanges in response to growth factor treatment and therefore mimicsproximal events in kinase activation. Unlike other RTK assay, this assayis cell-based, label-free and monitors cellular changes in real-time,therefore acquiring high content information regarding the state of thecell and the signaling pathways being activated. In addition, the RTKassay described here does not require expensive reagents nor suffer fromassay component interference. Since the readout is non-invasive multipletreatments can be carried out in the same well and can also be used inconjunction with other existing cell-based assays for RTK. It requiresvery little optimization and user training, making this assay amenablefor use in both primary and secondary screens.

Example 10 Method to Assess the Functional Contribution of ReceptorTyrosine Kinase Activity in Cancer Cell Proliferation

In addition to morphological changes, stimulation of receptor tyrosinekinases via their cognate ligand can induce cell growth andproliferation. It has been shown that stimulation of cells via growthfactors such as EGF can induce signaling pathways which induces theentry of the cells into the cell cycle and proliferation. Therefore,cellular proliferation is another method to assess the functional roleof growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases. The RT-CES system can bereadily used to monitor cellular proliferation, especially those ofbreast and lung cancer, where receptor tyrosine kinases have been shownto play an important role.

As an example we describe the monitoring of MCF-7 cancer cellproliferation and its inhibition by a general tyrosine kinase inhibitor,staurosporine. MCF-7 cells were seeded at a density of 8000 cells perwell of ACEA e-plates. Cell proliferation was monitored using the RT-CESsystem for 48 hours at which point the cells were treated with eitherDMSO alone as a control or staurosporine at a final concentration of 2.5μM (FIG. 49). The figure illustrates that the RT-CES system can be usedto monitor the proliferation of cancer cells and furthermore, it can beused to assess the effect of tyrosine kinase inhibitors, which doesaffect EGF receptor as well as other tyrosine kinases on theproliferation of cancer cells. This method allows real-time monitoringof the effect of receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors using the ACEART-CES system.

REFERENCES

-   1. Nambi, P and Aiyar N, 2003, G-protein coupled receptors in drug    discovery, Assay and Drug Development Technologies Vol: 1, pp    305-310-   2. Roberto E. Favoni and Alessandra De Cupis 2000, The role of    polypeptide growth factors in human carcinomas: new targets for a    novel pharmacological approach, Pharmacological Reviews, Vol:52, pp    179-205.-   3. El-Rayes B F and LoRusso P M, 2004, Targeting the epidermal    growth factor receptor, British Journal of Cancer, Vol: 91, pp:    418-424.-   4. Abassi Y. A., Jackson J. A., Zhu J., O'Connell J., Wang X., Xu X    2004, Label-free, real-time monitoring of IgE-mediated mast cell    activation on microelectronic cell sensor arrays. Journal of    Immunological Methods. Vol: 292, pp195-205.-   5. Solly K., Wang X., Xu X., Struloviki B., Zheng W. 2004.    Application of real-time cell electronic sensing (RT-CES) technology    to cell-based assays, Assay and Drug Development Technologies. Vol:    2, pp 363-372.-   6. Fitzsimons C. P., Monczor F., Fernandez N., Shayo C., Davio C.    2004, Mepyramine, a histamine H1 receptor agonist, binds    preferentially to a G protein-coupled form of the receptor and    sequesters G protein, The Journal of Biochemical Chemistry. Vol:    279, pp 34431-34439.    All of the references cited herein, including patents, patent    applications, and publications, and including references cited in    the Bibliography, are incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Headings are for the convenience of the reader and do not limit thescope of the invention.

1. A method of identifying a compound capable of interacting with aG-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) comprising: a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance; wherein said devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein said device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding test cells to at least twowells, wherein said test cells express a GPCR; c) measuring firstimpedances of said at least two wells immediately preceding step d) andoptionally determining first cell indices from said first impedances; d)adding a compound to at least one well containing said test cells toform at least one compound well and adding a vehicle control to at leastanother well containing test cells to form at least one control well; e)measuring second impedances of said at least one compound well and ofsaid at least one control well after step d) and optionally determiningsecond cell indices from said second impedances; f) determining thechange in the impedance or cell index for said at least one compoundwell by comparing said second impedance or said second cell index ofsaid at least one compound well to said first impedance or said firstcell index of said at least one compound well, and determining thechange in the impedance or cell index of said at least one control wellby comparing said second impedance or said second cell index of said atleast one control well to said first impedance or said first cell indexof said at least one control well, g) comparing said change in impedanceor cell index between said at least one compound well and said at leastone control well; and h) identifying said compound interacts with saidGPCR if said comparison demonstrates a significant difference betweensaid change in impedance or cell index of said at least one compoundwell and said change in impedance or cell index of said at least onecontrol well.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said devicecomprises: a) a nonconductive substrate; and b) a conductive electrodearray fabricated on said nonconductive substrate; wherein a cell iscapable of attaching to said electrode array.
 3. The method according toclaim 2, wherein said device is in the format of a multi-well plate;wherein each of said at least two wells comprises said conductiveelectrode array.
 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein saidmulti-well plate is selected from the group consisting of a 16 wellplate, a 24 well plate, a 96 well plate, a 384 well plate, and a 1536well plate.
 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein said cellsubstrate impedance measures a cell's morphology or a characteristic ofthe cytoskeleton of a cell.
 6. The method according to claim 1, whereinsaid GPCR is selected from the group consisting of a recombinant GPCR,an endogenous GPCR, an orphan GPCR, a constitutively active GPCR, andchimeric GPCR, or other chimeric receptor containing GPCR property. 7.The method according to claim 1, wherein said cell index is a normalizedcell index wherein normalization is at a time point a short time beforeadding said compound or said vehicle control, wherein the said shorttime is selected from the group consisting of less than 1 minute, lessthan 2 minutes, less than 5 minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 30minutes, less than 1 hour, less than 2 hours, less than 5 hours, lessthan 10 hours and less than 24 hours.
 8. The method according to claim1, wherein each of said first impedances are a series of impedancemeasurements prior to said adding said compound or said vehicle controland each of said first cell indices are a series of cell indices,wherein each of said first cell indices corresponds to a distinctimpedance measurement-within said series of impedance measurements.
 9. Amethod according to claim 1, wherein said measuring said firstimpedances occurs at a time selected from the group consisting of lessthan 1 minute, less than 5 minutes, less than 30 minutes, less than 1hour, less 2 hours, less than 5 hours, less than 10 hours, and less than24 hours prior to said adding said compound or said vehicle control. 10.The method according to claim 1, wherein said compound is obtained froma library of compounds.
 11. The method according to claim 1, whereinsaid compound is selected from a group consisting of a ligand, anagonist, and an inverse agonist.
 12. The method according to claim 1,wherein said compound is added to at least two wells and in at least twodifferent concentrations.
 13. The method according to claim 1, whereineach of said second impedances are a series of impedance measurementsafter said adding said compound or said vehicle control and each of saidsecond cell indices are a series of cell indices, wherein each of saidsecond cell indices correspond to a distinct impedance measurementwithin said series of impedance measurements.
 14. A method according toclaim 1, wherein said second impedances are measured at a time pointselected from the group consisting of more than 1 minute, more than 5minute, more than 30 minute, more than 1 hour, more than 2 hours, morethan 5 hours, more than 10 hours, and more than 24 hours after saidadding said compound or said vehicle control.
 15. The method accordingto claim 1, wherein said changes in impedances or cell indices areabsolute changes in impedances or cell indices.
 16. The method accordingto claim 1, wherein said changes in impedances or cell indices arerelative changes in impedances or cell indices.
 17. The method accordingto claim 1, wherein said compound is identified as an agonist if saidcomparison indicates a significant change comprising an increase or adecrease in impedance or cell index for said compound well after saidcompound is added, or as an inverse agonist if said comparison indicatesa significant change in impedance comprising a decrease or increase inimpedance or cell index for said compound well after said compound isadded and the significant change in impedance or cell index for thecompound well is in the opposite direction compared to the change of aknown agonist.
 18. The method according to claim 1, wherein saidcompound is added to at least two wells in at least two differentconcentrations forming at least two compound wells, further wherein adose curve is determined by plotting a maximum change in impedance or amaximum change in cell index for each concentration of the said compoundversus the corresponding concentration or determining the area under thecell-index curve or impedance curve for the for the differentconcentrations of the compound and plotting the area under thecell-index curve or impedance curve for each of the compoundconcentrations versus the corresponding concentration.
 19. The methodaccording to claim 18, further comprising determining an EC50 of saidcompound, wherein said EC50 is a concentration of a compound capable ofinducing 50% of maximum response in impedance or in cell index or 50% ofmaximum change in area under the cell-index curve or impedance curve.20. A method of identifying a compound capable of interacting with aG-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) comprising: a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance; wherein said devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein said device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding test cells to at least oneof said at least two wells to form at least one test well, and addingcontrol cells to at least another well to form at least one controlwell, wherein said test cells express a GPCR and said control cells donot express said GPCR or express said GPCR at a significantly lesserlevel that said test cells; c) measuring first impedances of said atleast one test well and of said at least one control well immediatelypreceding step d) and optionally determining first cell indices fromsaid first impedances; d) adding a compound to said at least one testwell and to said at least one control well; e) measuring secondimpedances from said at least one test well and from said at least onecontrol well after step d) and optionally determining second cellindices from said second impedances; f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index of said at least one test well by comparing saidsecond impedance or said second cell index of said at least one testwell to said first impedance or said first cell index of the said atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex of said at least one control well by comparing said secondimpedance or said second cell index of said at least one control well tosaid first impedance or said first cell index of the said at least onecontrol well; g) comparing said changes in impedance or in cell indexbetween said at least one test well and said at least one control well;and h) identifying said compound interacts with said GPCR if saidcomparison demonstrates a significant difference between said change inimpedance or cell index for said at least one test well and said changein impedance or cell index for said at least one control well.
 21. Themethod according to claim 20, wherein said device comprises: a) anonconductive substrate; and b) a conductive electrode array fabricatedon said nonconductive substrate; wherein a cell is capable of attachingto said electrode array.
 22. The method according to claim 21, whereinsaid device is in the format of a multi-well plate; wherein each of saidat least two wells comprises said conductive electrode array.
 23. Themethod according to claim 20, wherein said cell-substrate impedancemeasures a cell's morphology or a characteristic of the cytoskeleton ofa cell.
 24. The method according to claim 20, wherein said GPCR isselected from the group consisting of a recombinant GPCR, an endogenousGPCR, an orphan GPCR, a constitutively active GPCR, and chimeric GPCR,and an chimeric receptor comprising a GPCR property.
 25. The methodaccording to claim 20, wherein said cell index is a normalized cellindex wherein normalization is at a time point a short time beforeadding said compound or said vehicle control, wherein the said shorttime is selected from the group consisting of less than 1 minute, lessthan 2 minutes, less than 5 minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 30minutes, less than 1 hour, less than 2 hours, less than 5 hours, lessthan 10 hours, and less than 24 hours.
 26. The method according to claim20, wherein each of said first impedances are a series of impedancemeasurements prior to said adding said compound and each of said firstcell indices are a series of cell indices, wherein each of said firstcell indices corresponds to a distinct impedance measurement within saidseries of impedance-measurements.
 27. The method according to claim 20,wherein said measuring first impedances occurs at a time point selectedfrom the group consisting of less than 1 minute, less than 5 minutes,less than 30 minutes, less than 1 hour, less 2 hours, less than 5 hours,less than 10 hours, and less than 24 hours prior to said adding saidcompound or said vehicle control.
 28. The method according to claim 20,wherein said compound is obtained from a library of compounds.
 29. Themethod according to claim 20, wherein said compound is selected from agroup consisting of a ligand, an agonist or an inverse agonist.
 30. Themethod according to claim 20, wherein each of said second impedances area series of impedance measurements after said adding said compound andeach of said second cell indices are series of cell indices, whereineach of said second cell indices corresponds to a distinct secondimpedance measurement within said series of impedance measurements. 31.A method of claim 20, wherein said measuring said second impedancesoccurs at a time point selected from the group consisting of more than 1minute, more than 5 minutes, more than 30 minutes, more than 1 hour,more than 2 hours, more than 5 hours, more than 10 hours, and more than24 hours after said adding said compound or said vehicle control. 32.The method according to claim 20, wherein said changes in impedances orcell indices are absolute changes in impedances or cell indices.
 33. Themethod according to claim 20, wherein said change in impedances or cellindices are relative change in impedances or cell indices.
 34. Themethod according to claim 20, wherein said compound is identified as anagonist if said comparison indicates a significant change comprising anincrease in impedance or cell index for said test well after saidcompound is added and an inverse agonist if said comparison indicates asignificant change in impedance or cell index comprising a decrease forsaid test well after said compound is added.
 35. A method of screeningfor an antagonist for a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) with a knownligand comprising: a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein said device comprises at least twowells, further wherein said device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; b) adding test cells to each of at least two of said at leasttwo wells, wherein said test cells express a GPCR; c) adding a compoundsuspected of being a GPCR antagonist to at least one of said at leasttwo wells to form at least one compound well, adding a vehicle controlto at least another well of said at least two wells to form at least onecontrol well; d) measuring first impedances of said at least onecompound well and said at least one control well immediately precedingstep e), and optionally determining first cell indices from said firstimpedances; e) adding a GPCR ligand to said at least one compound welland to said at least one control well; f) measuring second impedances ofsaid at least one compound well and said at least one control well afterstep e) and optionally determining second cell indices from said secondimpedances; g) determining the change in the impedance or cell index forsaid at least one compound well by comparing said second impedance orsaid second cell index of said at least one compound well to said firstimpedance or said first cell index of said at least one compound well,and determining the change in the impedance or cell index of said atleast one control well by comparing said second impedance or said secondcell index of said at least one control well to said first impedance orsaid first cell index of the said at least one control well; h)comparing said change in impedance or cell index between said at leastone compound well and said at least one control well; and i) identifyingsaid compound is an antagonist for said GPCR if said comparisondemonstrates a significant difference between said change in impedanceor cell index of said at least one compound well and said change inimpedance or cell index of said at least one control well.
 36. Themethod according to claim 35, further comprising determining a dosedependent response curve, wherein said compound is added to at least twocompound wells in at least two different concentrations, further whereina maximum change in impedance or area under the cell-index curve orimpedance curve is determined for each compound well.
 37. The methodaccording to claim 36, further comprising determining an IC50 of saidcompound.
 38. A method of identifying a compound that affects aG-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) pathway comprising: a) providing adevice capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein saiddevice comprises at least two wells, further wherein said device isoperably connected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding test cells to atleast two of said at least two wells, wherein said test cells express aGPCR; c) adding a compound suspected of being capable of affecting aGPCR pathway to at least one of said at least two wells containing saidtest cells to form at least one compound well, adding a vehicle-controlto at least another well of said at least two wells containing said testcells to form at least one control well; d) measuring first impedancesof said at least one compound well and said at least one control wellimmediately preceding step e), and optionally determining first cellindices from said first impedances; e) adding a GPCR activating compoundto said at least one compound well and to said at least one controlwell; f) measuring second impedances of said at least one compound welland said at least one control well after step e) and optionallydetermining second cell indices from said second impedances; g)determining the change in the impedance or cell index for said at leastone compound well by comparing said second impedance or said second cellindex of said at least one compound well to said first impedance or saidfirst cell index of said at least one compound well, and determining thechange in the impedance or cell index of said at least one control wellby comparing said second impedance or said second cell index of said atleast one control well to said first impedance or said first cell indexof the said at least one control well; h) comparing said change inimpedance or cell index between said at least one compound well and saidat least one control well; and i) identifying said compound effects saidGPCR pathway if said comparison demonstrates a significant differencebetween said change in impedance or cell index of said at least onecompound well and said change in impedance or cell index of said atleast one control well.
 39. A method of validating a molecular targetinvolved in the GPCR signaling pathway leading from GPCR activationcomprising: a) providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrateimpedance, wherein said device comprises two or more wells, furtherwherein said device is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; b)adding test cells to at least one well to form a test well and addingconfirmation cells to at least another well to form a confirmation well,wherein said test cells express a GPCR and said confirmation cellscomprise: i) a dominant negative of protein of interest, or ii) an siRNAtargeting a protein of interest, or iii) a gene knockout of protein ofinterest, or iv) a chemical or protein inhibitor of the protein ofinterest; c) measuring first impedances of said at least one test welland said at least one confirmation well immediately preceding step d),and optionally determining first cell indices from said firstimpedances; d) adding a GPCR activating compound to said at least onetest well and to said at least one confirmation well; e) measuringsecond impedances of said at least one test well and said at least oneconfirmation well after step d) and optionally determining second cellindices from said second impedances; f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for said at least one test well by comparingsaid second impedance or said second cell index of said at least onetest well to said first impedance or said first cell index of said atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex of said at least one confirmation well by comparing said secondimpedance or said second cell index of said at least one confirmationwell to said first impedance or said first cell index of said at leastone confirmation well; g) comparing said change in impedance or cellindex between said at least one test well and said at least oneconfirmation well; and h) validating said molecular target if saidcomparison demonstrates a significant difference between said change inimpedance or cell index of said at least one test well and said changein impedance or cell index of said at least one confirmation well. 40.The method according to claim 39, wherein said activating compound is aGPCR ligand or a GPCR agonist.
 41. A method of monitoring dose-dependentfunctional activation of a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) comprising:a) providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance;wherein said device comprises at least two wells, further wherein saiddevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding testcells to said at least two wells, wherein said test cells express aGPCR; c) measuring first impedances from said at least two wellsimmediately preceding step d) and optionally determining first cellindices from said first impedances; d) adding a compound capable ofactivating said GPCR to at least two wells in at least at two differentconcentrations forming compound wells 1 through x, wherein x equals thenumber of said at least two different concentrations; e) measuring aseries of impedances for each of said compound wells 1 through x afterstep d) and optionally determining a series of cell indices from saidseries of impedances, wherein said series comprise at least threeimpedance measurements; f) determining the change in the impedance orcell index for each of said compound wells 1 through x by comparing saidseries of impedances or said series of cell indices for each of saidcompound wells 1 through x to said first impedance or said first cellindex of each well corresponding to said compound wells 1 through x; andg) comparing said changes in impedances or in cell indices between saidcompound wells 1 through x at a given time point.
 42. The methodaccording to claim 41, further comprising establishing a dose curve,wherein said dose curve is determined by plotting a maximum change inimpedance or a maximum change in cell index for each concentration ofthe said compound versus the corresponding concentration or said dosecurve is determined by measuring the area under the cell-index curve orimpedance curve for each of the concentrations and plotting the areaunder the cell-index curve or impedance curve versus the correspondingconcentration.
 43. The method according to claim 42, further comprisingdetermining an EC50 of said compound, wherein said EC50 is the molarconcentration of said compound capable of inducing 50% of maximumresponses in impedance or cell index or 50% of maximum change in areaunder the cell-index curve or impedance curve.
 44. A method to determinedesensitization of a GPCR comprising: a) providing a device capable ofmeasuring cell-substrate impedance of a test cell expressing a GPCR,wherein said device comprises at least one well, further wherein saiddevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding testcells to said at least one well, wherein said test cells expresses aGPCR; c) measuring a first impedance of said at least one wellimmediately preceding step d) and optionally determining a first cellindex; d) introducing an agonist to said at least one well; e) measuringa second impedance of said at least one well and optionally determininga second cell index; f) comparing said second impedance or said secondcell index to said first impedance or said first cell index; g) allowingthe cell-substrate impedance to return about to said first impedance; h)washing said test cells with an appropriate wash solution; i)introducing an agonist to said at least one well after said washing saidtest cells; j) measuring a third impedance of said at least one well andoptionally determining a third cell index; k) comparing said thirdimpedance or said third cell index to to said first impedance or saidfirst cell index; l) comparing said third impedance or said third cellindex to said second impedance or said second cell index; and m)determining said GPCR is fully desensitized if said third impedance orsaid third cell index does not significantly vary from said firstimpedance or said first cell index, or determining said GPCR is notdesensitized if said third impedance or third cell index does notsignificantly vary from said second impedance or said second cell index,or determining said GPCR is partially desensitized if said thirdimpedance or third cell index does vary from said first impedance orsaid first cell index.
 45. The method according to claim 44, the methodfurther comprises repeating steps h) through m) if said GPCR is notfully desensitized.
 46. A method of identifying a factor capable ofinteracting with a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) comprising: a)providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance;wherein said device comprises at least two wells, further wherein saiddevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer, b) adding testcells to at least two wells, wherein said test cells express a RTK; c)measuring first impedances of said at least two wells immediatelypreceding step d) and optionally determining first cell indices fromsaid first impedances; d) adding a compound suspected of being a factorcapable of interacting with a RTK to at least one well containing saidtest cells to form at least one compound well and adding a vehiclecontrol to at least another well containing test cells to form at leastone control well; e) measuring second impedances of said at least onecompound well and of said at least one control well after step d) andoptionally determining second cell indices from said second impedance;f) determining the change in the impedance or cell index for said atleast one compound well by comparing said second impedance or saidsecond cell index of said at least one compound well to said firstimpedance or said first cell index of said at least one compound well,and determining the change in the impedance or cell index for said atleast one control well by comparing said second impedance or said secondcell index of said at least one control well to said first impedance orsaid first cell index of the said at least one control well; g)comparing said changes in impedances or in cell indices between said atleast one compound well and said at least one control well; and h)identifying said compound is a factor that interacts with said RTK andaffects cell morphology if said comparison demonstrates a significantdifference between said change in impedance or cell index for said atleast one compound well and said change in impedance or cell index forsaid at least one control well.
 47. The method according to claim 46,wherein said cell index is a normalized cell index wherein normalizationis at a time point a short time before adding said compound or saidvehicle control, wherein the said short time is selected from the groupconsisting of less than 1 minute, less than 2 minutes, less than 5minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 30 minutes, less than 1 hour,less than 2 hours, less than 5 hours, less than 10 hours and less than24 hours.
 48. The method according to claim 46, wherein said test cellsare in a serum free medium.
 49. A method of identifying a factor capableof interacting with a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) comprising: (a)providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrate impedance;wherein said device comprises at least two wells, further wherein saiddevice is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; (b) adding testcells to at least one well to form at least one test well, wherein saidtest cells express a RTK, and adding control cells to at least anotherwell to form at least one control well, wherein said control cells donot express said RTK or express said RTK at a significantly lesser levelthat said test cells; (c) measuring first impedances from said at leastone test well and from said at least one control well immediatelypreceding step d) and optionally determining first cell indices fromsaid first impedances; (d) adding a compound to said at least one testwell and to said at least one control well; (e) measuring secondimpedances from said at least one test well and from said at least onecontrol well after step d) and optionally determining second cellindices from said second impedances; (f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for said at least one test well by comparingsaid second impedance or said second cell index of said at least onetest well to said first impedance or said first cell index of said atleast one test well, and determining the change in the impedance or cellindex for said at least one control well by comparing said secondimpedance or said second cell index of said at least one control well tosaid first impedance or said first cell index of the said at least onecontrol well; (g) comparing said changes in impedance or in cell indexbetween said at least one test well and said at least one control well;and (h) identifying said compound interacts with said RTK if saidcomparison demonstrates a significant difference between said change inimpedance or cell index for said at least one test well and said changein impedance or cell index for said at least one control well.
 50. Amethod of screening for an inhibitor for a Receptor Tyrosine Kinase(RTK) in response to activation of RTK with a stimulating factorcomprising: a) providing a device capable of measuring cell-substrateimpedance, wherein said device comprises at least two wells, furtherwherein said device is operably connected to an impedance analyzer; b)adding test cells to each of at least two of said at least two wells,wherein said test cells expresses a RTK; c) adding a compound suspectedof being a RTK inhibitor to at least one of said at least two wellscontaining test cells to form at least one compound well, adding avehicle control to at least another well of said at least two wellscontaining test cells to form at least one control well; d) measuringfirst impedances of said at least one compound well and said at leastone control well immediately preceding step e), and optionallydetermining first cell indices from said first impedances; e) adding aRTK stimulating factor to said compound well and said control well; f)measuring second impedances of said at least one compound well and saidat least one control well after step e) and optionally determining thirdcell indices from said second impedances; g) determining the change inthe impedance or cell index for said at least one compound well bycomparing said second impedance or said second cell index of said atleast one compound well to said first impedance or said first cell indexof said at least one compound well, and determining the change in theimpedance or cell index of said at least one control well by comparingsaid second impedance or said second cell index of said at least onecontrol well to said first impedance or said first cell index of thesaid at least one control well; h) comparing said change in impedance orcell index between said at least one compound well and said at least onecontrol well; and i) identifying said compound is an inhibitor for saidRTK if said comparison demonstrates a significant difference betweensaid change in impedance or cell index for said at least one compoundwell and said change in impedance or cell index for said at least onecontrol well.
 51. A method of identifying a compound that affects aReceptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) pathway comprising: a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance, wherein said devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein said device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding test cells to at least twoof said at least two wells, wherein said test cells expresses a RTK; c)adding a compound suspected of being capable of effecting a RTK pathwayto at least one of said at least two wells to form at least one compoundwell, adding a vehicle control to at least another well of said at leasttwo wells to form at least one control well; d) measuring firstimpedances of said at least one compound well and said at least onecontrol well immediately preceding step e), and optionally determiningfirst cell indices from said first impedances; e) adding a RTKstimulating factor to said at least one compound well and to said atleast one control well; f) measuring second impedances of said at leastone compound well and said at least one control well after said addingsaid RTK stimulating factor and optionally determining second cellindices from said second impedances; g) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for said at least one compound well by comparingsaid second impedance or said second cell index of said at least onecompound well to said first impedance or said first cell index of saidat least one compound well, and determining the change in the impedanceor cell index of said at least one control well by comparing said secondimpedance or said second cell index of said at least one control well tosaid first impedance or said first cell index of the said at least onecontrol well; h) comparing said change in impedance or cell indexbetween said at least one compound well and said at least one controlwell; i) identifying said compound effects said RTK pathway if saidcomparison demonstrates a significant difference between said change inimpedance or cell index for said at least one compound well and saidchange in impedance or cell index for said at least one control well.52. The method according to claim 51, wherein said stimulating factor isa growth factor capable of activating RTK.
 53. The method according toclaim 52, wherein said growth factor is selected from the groupconsisting of epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet derived growthfactor (PDGF), a nerve growth factor (NGF), and an antibody capable ofactivating RTK.
 54. A method of validating a molecular target involvedin the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) signaling pathway leading from RTKactivation comprising: a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein said device comprises at least twowells, further wherein said device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; b) adding test cells to at least one well to form a test welland adding control cells to at least another well to form a controlwell, wherein said control cells express a RTK and said test cellscomprise: i) a dominant negative version of protein of interest, or ii)an siRNA targeting a protein of interest or iii) a gene knockout of aprotein of interest iv) a chemical or protein inhibitor specific fortarget of interest; c) measuring first impedances of said at least onetest well and said at least one control well immediately preceding stepd), and optionally determining first cell indices from said firstimpedances; d) adding a compound to said at least one test well and tosaid at least one control well; e) measuring second impedances of saidat least one test well and said at least one control well after step d)and optionally determining second cell indices from said secondimpedances; f) determining the change in the impedance or cell index forsaid at least one test well by comparing said second impedance or saidsecond cell index of said at least one test well to said first impedanceor said first cell index of said at least one test well, and determiningthe change in the impedance or cell index of said at least one controlwell by comparing said second impedance or said second cell index ofsaid at least one control well to said first impedance or said firstcell index of the said at least one control well; g) comparing saidchange in impedance or cell index between said at least one test welland said at least one control well; and h) validating said moleculartarget if said comparison demonstrates a significant difference betweensaid change in impedance or cell index of said at least one test welland said change in impedance or cell index of said at least one controlwell.
 55. A method of monitoring dose-dependent functional activation ofa Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) comprising: a) providing a devicecapable of measuring cell-substrate impedance; wherein-said devicecomprises at least two wells, further wherein said device is operablyconnected to an impedance analyzer; b) adding test cells to said atleast two wells, wherein said test cells express a RTK; c) measuringfirst impedances from said at least two wells immediately preceding stepd) and optionally determining first cell indices from said firstimpedances; d) adding a compound capable of activating said RTK to atleast two wells in at least at two different concentrations formingcompound wells 1 through x, wherein x equals the number of said at leasttwo different concentrations; e) measuring a series of impedances foreach of said compound wells 1 through x after step d) and optionallydetermining a series of cell indices from said series of impedances,wherein said series comprise at least three impedance measurements; f)determining the change in the impedance or cell index for each of saidcompound wells 1 through x by comparing said series of impedances orsaid series of cell indices for each of said compound wells 1 through xto said first impedance or said first cell index of each wellcorresponding to compound wells 1 through x; and g) comparing saidchanges in impedances or in cell indices between said compound wells 1through x at a given time point.
 56. The method according to claim 55,further comprising establishing a dose curve, wherein said dose curve isdetermined by plotting a maximum change in impedance or a maximum changein cell index for each concentration of the said compound versus thecorresponding concentration or said dose curve is determined bymeasuring the area under the cell-index curve or impedance curve foreach of the concentrations and plotting the area under the cell-indexcurve or impedance curve versus the corresponding concentration.
 57. Themethod according to claim 56, further comprising determining an EC50 ofsaid compound, wherein said EC50 is the molar concentration of saidcompound capable of inducing 50% of a maximum response in impedance orcell index or 50% of a maximum change in area under the cell-index curveor impedance curve.
 58. A method of identifying a compound capable ofaffecting Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) activity in cancer cellproliferation comprising: a) providing a device capable of measuringcell-substrate impedance, wherein said device comprises at least twowells, further wherein said device is operably connected to an impedanceanalyzer; b) adding cancer cells expressing a receptor tyrosine kinase(RTK) to at least two of said at least two wells; c) measuring firstimpedances of said at least two wells before step d) and optionallydetermining first cell indices; d) introducing a compound suspected ofbeing an RTK inhibitor to said at least one well to form at least onecompound well and adding a vehicle control to at least another well toform a control well; e) measuring a series of second impedances of saidcompound well and said control well after step d) and optionallydetermining second cell indices; f) determining the change in theimpedance or cell index for said at least one compound well by comparingsaid series of second impedances or said second cell indices of said atleast one compound well to said first impedance or said first cell indexof said at least one compound well, and determining the change in theimpedance or cell index of said at least one control well by comparingsaid series of second impedances or said second cell indices of said atleast one control well to said first impedance or said first cell indexof the said at least one control well; g) comparing said change inimpedance or cell index between said at least one compound well and saidat least one control well; and h) identifying said compound is capableof affecting cancer cell proliferation if said comparison demonstratessaid change in impedance or cell index of the at least one control wellis greater than the change in impedance or cell index at least onecompound well.
 59. The method according to claim 58, wherein said secondimpedances are measured during a period occurring after an initial spikein impedance.
 60. The method according to claim 58, further comprisingadding a RTK stimulating factor after step d) and before step e),wherein said cancer cells are in serum-free medium in said at leastcompound well and in said at least one control well.